The Enlightenment in Full Swing The Philosophes & Reforming Society

The Philosophes After 1730s ,Western intellectuals began exploring implications of science Nature was now the guide for human thought, and there was optimism around the idea that an understanding of nature would lead to positive change Move from tradition to progress Reason = enlightenment

The Philosophes Were French Enlightenment thinkers – France is the heart of the movement Non-traditional philosophers – intellectuals that were not formally trained by universities Extended or supported already existing ideas & concepts Created “cultural works” like plays, satires, novels, pamphlets etc. Considered themselves a “republic of letters” It should “establish the laws of philosophy and taste for the rest of the nation

The Philosophes Voltaire Classical education from the Jesuits but denounced their religious doctrine Rose in popularity and infamy in his 20s, he was imprisoned multiple times in the Bastille for criticising the crown → he goes to England in exchange for freedom Learns Newton and Locke in England – likes Parliamentary government & religious tolerance Comes back to France and stays in protection of Émile du Châtelet…

The Philosophes Émilie du Châtelet Extremely intelligent, wealthy, Voltaire’s lover (Voltaire, Châtelet & her husband live openly) 1733 she dresses as a man to get into Parisian coffee house to join male intellectual group Her chateau is filled with science equipment and she helps Voltaire understand science Writes plenty, including a three volume work on German mathematician Leibnitz & she translated Newton’s Principles of Mathematics

The Philosophes Back to Voltaire Châtelet dies in childbirth in 1749 and a distraught Voltaire is invited to join King Frederick II of Prussia’s court → accepts, but they fight so he returns to France He had become wealthy and had many patrons – writes poetry, drama, essays, treatises…90 volumes total

The Philosophes Voltaire Candide – dark satire that criticizes naïve optimism and the Catholic Church Philosophical Dictionary – attack on religion & churches Treatise of Tolerance – supported religious tolerance, everyone is equal under God International popularity shows increased interest in Enlightenment thinking in the 18th century

The Philosophes Encyclopedia Philosophy of Enlightenment as collaboration of Philosophes Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert are the editors Goal was: “to overturn the barriers that reason never erected” and “contribute to the certitude and progress of human knowledge” Reason alone can be used for almost anything

The Philosophes Encyclopedia Massive array of topics through the lens of philosophe criticism and empiricism Church saw it as a threat to the status-quo and conservatism → censored it, stopped its production, harassed the editors Diderot helped the project through to completion in 1772

The Philosophes Attack on Religion Writings like Encyclopedia were seen as a threat so authors often sent works to Switzerland or Holland for publishing Philosophes like Voltaire and Montesquieu committed “crimes” by promoting religious tolerance Some Philosophes like Baron d’Holbach and Hume were virtually atheist in their writing

The Philosophes Deism An impersonal Divine Being made the world but did not tamper in daily life Thomas Paine: “My mind is my own church” Church probably lost more people than it gained by attacking the Philosophes

Reforming Society Philosophes argued about the individual vs society and criticized tradition Laid the groundwork with influential ideas for reform… Philosophes thought the lower classes were ignorant, Voltaire said they couldn’t reason They wanted a peaceful change from “top-down” not a revolution from the “bottom-up”

Reforming Society Baron de Montesquieu Admirer of Locke and the English system of government, he analyzed political systems from a relativistic perspective He believed Locke’s doctrine of limited sovereignty could be ensured by separation of powers and checks & balances → the U.S. Constitution uses this (Executive, Judicial, Legislative) The Spirit of Laws – political institutions should conform to the needs of the country & each form of government has vices and virtues

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Reforming Society Jean-Jacques Rousseau Discourse on the Origin of Inequality – people in a “primitive state of noble savagery” were free Private property = inequality and a need for laws and a government to protect it

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Reforming Society Jean-Jacques Rousseau The Social Contract – challenged his contemporaries: “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains” The solution to conflict of individual freedom vs social restrictions = giving up individual liberty for the greater good of society = you are forced to be free as part of society’s “general will” Citizens should make their own laws

Rousseau Participatory Democracy OR Authoritarian Political System? Reforming Society Rousseau Does this support a Participatory Democracy OR Authoritarian Political System?

Reforming Society Education Many supported Locke’s idea of emphasizing the power of education to guide children into adulthood Rousseau’s Emile – stop schooling of discipline and start believing in student goodness and teach to their interests Girls should be educated as housewives…*sigh*

The “Woman Question” Some books on this by female authors Reforming Society The “Woman Question” Some books on this by female authors A Serious Proposal to Ladies by Mary Astell – should be educated in reason and debate, men seem to know more because they get all the encouragement “If all men are born free, how is it all women are born slaves?” A Vindication of the Rights of Women by Mary Wollstonecraft – rights of all humans

Diderot Said he wrote… “Only for those with whom I should enjoy conversing” Hand in your “Dinner Guest” List!

John Swift Read Swift’s A Modest Proposal (Pg 40-41 in the Haberman text) Answer Question 1 on Pg. 44 (a précis is a summary/abstract)