Organizational Behavior Instructor: B. Aliiaskarov, Ph.D.

Chapter 8 Foundations of Group Behavior Essentials of Organizational Behavior, 11/e Stephen P. Robbins & Timothy A. Judge Chapter 8 Foundations of Group Behavior

After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Define group and distinguish the different types of groups. Identify the five stages of group development. Show how role requirements change in different situations. Demonstrate how norms and status exert influence on an individual’s behavior. Contrast the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making. Evaluate evidence for cultural differences in group status and social loafing as well as the effects of diversity in groups.

Groups Formal Informal Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives Formal Defined by the organization’s structure Informal Neither formally structured nor organizationally determined Groups are defined as two or more individuals who come together to achieve a set goal. There are two main types of groups. The first is a formal group where the organization establishes the group with defined work tasks and outcomes. The second group is an informal group that is not part of the organizational structure. They are often established in reaction to a need for social interaction and form naturally. Informal groups can have a significant influence on behavior and performance.

Groups

Four Types of Groups Formal Groups Informal Groups Command – determined by the organization chart(School principal) Task – working together to complete a job task (Emergency management) Interest – affiliate to attain a specific objective of shared interest Friendship – members have one or more common characteristics Within the category of formal groups there are two main types. The command group is one that reports directly to a given manager such as a department or unit. A task group is formed to accomplish a particular objective but is not limited by the structure or departments of the organization. Informal groups also have subgroups. They are typically formed around a common interest such as an interest group or around common characteristics such as a friendship group.

Why Do People Join Groups? Security Status Self-esteem Affiliation Power Goal achievement There are many reasons that people will join groups. However, the social identity theory suggests that people have emotional reactions to the failures or successes of a group because their self-esteem gets tied into the performance of the group. Social identity is developed when the characteristics of similarity, distinctiveness, status and uncertainty reduction are present. Members of group often join groups of people who are similar to them, however, they want there to be a distinctiveness to the group. Since people define themselves by groups they are connected to, they will tend to want to be a part of high-status groups. People also join groups to reduce uncertainty as a way to maintain a sense of who they are and how they fit into this world.

The Five-Stage Model of Group Development 1 Forming: Uncertainty about purpose, structure, and leadership 2 Storming: Intragroup conflict as members resist constraints 3 Norming: Group is cohesive with strong group identity 4 Performing: Group fully functional and working toward goals 5 Adjourning: For temporary groups: breaking up The five stage group development model characterizes groups as moving through five distinct stages in the group process. They are forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning. The forming stage is filled with uncertainty as group members figure out their roles and the group norms. The storming stage occurs as the roles are continued to be developed and conflict arises between group members. As members develop closer relationships and a sense of cohesiveness they move into the norming stage. When the group is functioning well together and achieving their goals they are in the performing stage. If it is a temporary group they will wrap up activities and adjourn in the final stage.

Key Points & Critique of Five-Stage Model Group Effectiveness: Generally groups are more effective as they progress Reasons for this are complex Group Conflict: Some groups need conflict, most productive in Stage II Blurred Stages: Stages not always sequential Multiple stages may be taken simultaneously May regress a stage Although the five stage development model is widely accepted there are some critiques of the model. The assumption that the group becomes more effective through each of the stages is somewhat suspect. The process is not always that linear and several stages may occur at the same time. Also, groups may regress into early stages at some point in the process. Also, the model ignores the organizational context. We have seen in our study of earlier theories that context can have a large impact on behavior.

Group Properties Roles Norms Status Size Cohesiveness

Group Property 1: Roles The set of expected behavior patterns that are attributed to occupying a given position in a social unit Role Perception – our view of how we’re supposed to act in a given situation Role Expectations – how others believe you should act in a given situation (Judge vs. football coach) Role Conflict – conflict experienced when multiple roles are incompatible Roles are the expected behavior individuals will take on in a group such as the leader or the task master. Each role is assigned a certain identity that explains expected attitudes and behaviors that correspond with the role identity. Each individual has their own point of view of how they are supposed to act in the context of the group, this is called role perception. Role expectations looks at how others believe a person should act in given situation. Role conflict occurs when the expected behaviors don’t match up with the behaviors being exhibited.

Group Property 2: Norms Powerful means of influencing behavior Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group’s members Powerful means of influencing behavior Performance Norms Appearance Norms Social Arrangement Norms Resource Allocation Norms Norms are standards of behavior that are acceptable by group members. There are different types of norms such as performance norms that look at an acceptable work level or quality or appearance norms about what to wear. Social arrangement norms look at acceptable relationships and allocation of resources norms look at how things are distributed.

Lessons from the Hawthorne Studies Productivity increased because groups were paid attention to by the observers – not because of changes in environment Workers in groups do not maximize individual economic rewards Group standards are set and enforced by the group itself The Hawthorne studies were conducted in the 1920/30’s. Their findings have been widely used in the understanding of group interactions. These studies found that worker behavior was highly influence by group norms and that individual productivity was influenced by the standards the group set forth. Also, money was not as important in determining worker output as group standards and sentiments were.

Conformity Reference Groups: Asch Studies Groups in which a person is aware of other members, defines self as a member, believes group members to be significant Individuals try to conform to norms of these groups Asch Studies Members desire to avoid being visibly different Members with differing opinions feel extensive pressure to align with others Level of conformity has declined since 1950s

Deviant Workplace Behavior Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the well- being of the organization or its members Is likely to flourish when: Supported by group norms People are in groups Some individuals do not like to conform and adhere to set norms due to a number of reasons. Individuals of this nature may engage in deviant workplace behavior or behavior that goes against organizational norms and hinders the desired outcomes of the organization.

Group Property 3: Status A socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others Determined by: The power a person wields over others A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals (Kobe) An individual’s personal characteristics (good look) Status is another group property and refers to the position or rank given to groups or their members in a way to differentiate members. Status can influence behavior and has been found to be a significant motivator. The status characteristics theory suggest that status is derived by one of three sources; the power a person has over others; the ability to contribute to group goals; or personal characteristics.

Impact of Status High-status members: Often have more freedom to deviate from norms Are better able to resist conformity pressures Interaction among members of groups is influenced by status High status people are more assertive Low status members may not participate Group creativity may suffer Status can have an impact a number of things in groups. First, it can impact norms within a group where high-status members don’t feel the need to conform to group norms, but can pressure others to conform. Second, it can impact group interaction where members who hold more status tend to be more assertive and can hinder new ideas being presented. Finally, it impacts perceived equity in a group which will influence how engaged others are in the group process.

Group Property 4: Size Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks – members perform better Large groups are consistently better at problem solving Size is important factor in group behavior as well and impacts the behavior in groups. The larger the group the harder it is to get contribution by all members and do so in a timely manner. Where as small groups can be limited in their problem-solving ability and the availability of resources could be limited. There are some detrimental behaviors that can occur around group size. For example as groups get larger social loafing can occur which is when an individual will put in less effort because they think others in the group will make up for them.

Social Loafing (Ringelmann’s Rope pull) Causes: Prevention: Equity theory – unequal distribution of work Dispersion of responsibility – clouds the relationship between individual inputs and group output Set group goals Increase inter-group competition Engage in peer evaluation Distribute group rewards based on members’ individual contributions Social loafing is an example where there is a tendency for individuals to not work as hard in groups as they would on an individual basis. This is exhibited in Ringelmann’s rope pull example discussed in the book. Initially the group brought about greater productivity but as the group grew larger each individual contributed less to the group. This could be due to the fact that peopled didn’t think things are equitable or they let others take the responsibility because they know they don’t have to for the outcome to occur. This is often referred to as free riding. When working with groups managers one must be sure to build in individual accountability. Social loafing can be prevented by setting up goals, encouraging intergroup competition, using peer evaluation as part of the feedback process and linking group rewards to individual behavior.

Group Property 5: Cohesiveness The degree to which members of the group are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group Performance-related norms are the moderating variable for productivity and cohesiveness High cohesiveness with high norms gives higher productivity The final property of groups is group cohesiveness or the degree to which group members want to stay together and are motivated to work together as a group. Managers can do a lot to encourage group cohesiveness but that can’t prescribe it. If performance norms are high than a more cohesive group will rise to the occasion and will achieve a high level of productivity.

Encouraging Cohesiveness Make the group smaller Encourage agreement with group goals Increase the time spent together Increase the status and perceived difficulty of group membership Stimulate competition with other groups Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members Physically isolate the group This slides list out numerous ways to encourage cohesiveness in a group. If a group is not cohesive the outcomes will be seriously impacted. Some things they can do to foster cohesiveness is to keep groups small, encourage all members understanding of group goals, increase the time the group spends together and heighten their perceived status. In addition, by stimulating competition with other groups, members will find ways to work together. Managers can also reward the group as a whole and not just individuals within the group. Finally they can physically isolate the group by sending them on a retreat or giving them their own work space. Their actions can significantly influence group cohesiveness.

Group Decision Making Generate more complete information and knowledge Strengths Weaknesses Generate more complete information and knowledge Increased diversity of views Increased acceptance of a solution Takes longer Conformity pressures Discussions can be dominated by one or a few members Ambiguous responsibility for the final outcome Group decision making comes with its strengths and weaknesses when compared to individual decision making. Groups do tend to generate more complete information and knowledge as well as offer a greater diversity of views and increased creativity. Since more people are involved in the decision there tends to be an increased acceptance of decisions and generally group decisions are more accurate. However, group decisions also are more time consuming and can conform to pressures in the group thus limiting their effectiveness. In the process, discussions can be dominated by a few members. The members of the group may not always take responsibility for the actions of group as it is hard to assign responsibility to a single person.

Effectiveness & Efficiency Accuracy – group is better than average individual but worse than most accurate group member Speed – individuals are faster Creativity – groups are better Degree of Acceptance – groups are better Efficiency: Groups are generally less efficient In some situations groups are more effective or efficient and in other situations individuals are. When you are looking for accuracy groups tend to perform better, but they are not as fast. Groups tend to be more creative and their decisions tend to be accepted m ore because of multi-person buy in.

Groupthink Symptoms Occurs when members: A deterioration of individual’s mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgments as a result of group pressures Occurs when members: Rationalize away resistance to assumptions Pressure doubters to support the majority Doubters keep silent/minimize their misgivings Interprets silence as a “yes” vote In the decision making process some problems can arise. A common problem is groupthink. This occurs when the group is seeking conformity and there is pressure to come to a conclusion without critically appraising alternative viewpoints. Members are more likely to engage in Groupthink when they tend to rationalize away any resistance to assumptions and they feel pressure to support the majority. Doubters will then tend to keep silent and minimize their thoughts on what might be wrong with a proposed solution. The group can then interpret the silence of the doubters as a yes vote.

Minimizing Groupthink Limit group size (≤10) Encourage group leaders to actively seek input from all members and avoid expressing their own opinions Appoint a “devil’s advocate” Group think can be minimized by limiting the group size, having a leader who actively seeks input from all members and by appointing a devil’s advocate. Someone who is always trying to look at things from a different perspective.

Groupshift Group discussions lead members to assume new, more extreme, positions Groups often take positions of greater risk May be due to diffused responsibility Another phenomenon in the group decision making process is groupshift where once a solution is selected group members tend to exaggerate the initial positions that they hold. This can cause a shift to a more conservative or risky decision.

Group Decision-Making Techniques Interacting groups meet face-to-face and rely on verbal and non-verbal interactions to communicate Brainstorming Generates a list of creative alternatives Problem: production blocking Nominal Group Technique (NGT) Restricts discussion during the decision-making process to encourage independent thinking Some group techniques can assist in the decision-making process. The first technique that can help is brainstorming. This is a process that is aimed at generating ideas where all ideas are welcomed and the group tries to create an environment that overcomes pressure for conformity. The Nominal group technique works by restricting discussion during the decision-making process to help participants to operate independently.

Global Implications Cultural differences affect the importance, display, and derivation of status. Social loafing occurs mostly in individualistic cultures motivated by self-interest. Diversity leads to greater conflict but the surface-level recognition may make members more open-minded and accepting – leading to better decisions. Many group theories will vary by culture so it is important to look at the context in which they are being applied. For example, status varies quite a bit with culture and managers must understand how they will be perceived in the culture they are in. Social loafing is a phenomenon that is primarily applicable in western cultures that are more individualistic in nature. Another application is group diversity. The more diverse the group is, the more conflict that will normally occur which may cause people to remove themselves from the group or low morale. If diverse groups can get over the initial difficulties then they tend to perform very well.

Implications for Managers Positive relationship between role perception and performance evaluation Group norms can affect individual performance either positively or negatively Status inequities adversely impact productivity and performance Group size impacts effectiveness Cohesiveness can influence productivity Effective group processing can increase performance and job satisfaction. Performance with groups is highly tied to group cohesiveness. Satisfaction can be increased with a congruence of goals, a recognition of member’s need for status and smaller group size.

Keep in Mind… Group norms, roles, and identities have powerful affects on individual behavior Conformity can be a problem: have leaders minimize initial inputs Group decision making is not always better than individual decision making Groups have norms, roles and identities that can greatly affect individual behavior so it is essential that you understand what those are. Conformity can limit the decision making ability, it is often helpful for leaders to sit back and limit their early inputs to allow for other perspectives. Although there are many benefits of groups and their decision making it is not always preferable to individual decision making.

Summary Defined group and differentiated between types of groups. Identified the five stages of group development. Showed how role requirements changed in different situations. Demonstrated how norms and status exert influence on an individual’s behavior. Contrasted the strengths and weaknesses of group decision making. Evaluated evidence for cultural differences in group status and social loafing as well as the effects of diversity in groups.