Work in the 21st Century Chapter 7 Training & Development

Module 7.1: Foundations of Training & Learning Systematic acquisition of skills, concepts, or attitudes resulting in improved performance in another environment Basic foundation for training programs is learning

Learning Learning 3 broad categories of learning outcomes Relatively permanent change in behavior & human capabilities produced by experience & practice 3 broad categories of learning outcomes Cognitive outcomes Skill-based outcomes Affective outcomes

Performance Actions or behaviors relevant to organization’s goals; can be measured in terms of each individual proficiency Can often be directly observed We assume learning takes place from observing performance

Training, Learning, & Performance Training increases probability of learning, and learning increases probability of better job performance.

Training Needs Analysis 3-step process Organizational analysis Task analysis Person analysis Required to develop systematic understanding of where training is needed (organizational), what needs to be trained (task), & who will be trained (person)

Training Needs Analysis (cont’d)

Organizational Analysis Examines org. goals, available resources, & org. environment to determine where training should be directed Takes into account climate of organization & its subunits

Task Analysis Examines what employees must do to perform job properly Can consist of Developing task statements Determining homogeneous task clusters Identifying KSAOs required for job May also include assessment of competencies

Person Analysis Identifies which individuals within organization should receive training & what kind of instruction they need Assessments of trainee personality, ability, & experience increasingly being used as part of needs analysis

Task Clusters for Train Operators

Learning Process in Training Trainee characteristics Goal orientation Performance orientation Concerned with doing well Mastery orientation Concerned with increasing competence Experience level Trainee motivation Trainee readiness

Characteristics Affecting Learning & Transfer Outcomes Figure 7.1: SOURCE: Adapted from Baldwin & Ford (1988)

Learning & Motivational Theories Applied to Training Reinforcement theory Learning results from association between behaviors & rewards Positive reinforcement Desired behavior followed by reward Behavior modification Simple recognition & feedback can be effective in increasing performance

Learning & Motivational Theories Applied to Training (cont'd) Social learning theory proposes that there are many ways to learn including: Behavioral modeling 1. Observe actual job incumbents demonstrate positive modeling behaviors 2. Rehearse before using role-playing 3. Receive feedback on rehearsal 4. Try behavior on the job

Cognitive & Social Learning Theory Broad approach including: Self-efficacy Belief in one’s capability to perform Goal setting Specific, difficult goals direct attention & improve performance Feedback Knowledge of results of one’s actions Enhances motivation, learning, & performance

Principles of Learning Active practice Actively participating in training/work tasks Automaticity Occurs when tasks can be performed with limited attention; likely to develop when learners are given extra learning opportunities (overlearning) after they have demonstrated mastery of a task.

Fidelity Extent to which task trained is similar to task required by job Physical fidelity Extent to which training task mirrors physical features of task performed on job Psychological fidelity Extent to which training task helps trainees develop KSAOs necessary to perform job

Principles of Learning (cont'd) Whole learning When entire task is practiced at once More effective when complex task has relatively high organization Part learning When subtasks are practiced separately & later combined More effective when complex task has low organization e.g., surgeons & pilots

Principles of Learning (cont'd) Massed practice Individuals practice task continuously & without rest (e.g., cramming for test) Distributed practice Rest intervals between practice sessions Generally results in more efficient learning & retention than massed practice

Learning Organizations Companies that emphasize continuous learning, knowledge sharing, & personal mastery Additional features 1. Emphasize problem solving & innovation 2. Develop systems that enhance knowledge sharing 3. Encourage flexibility & experimentation 4. Value well-being & development of all employees 5. Encourage employees to find or make opportunities

Learning Organizations Global challenges require emphasis on global learning organizations

Module 7.2: Content & Methods of Training Training methods 4 basic principles 1. Present relevant information & content to be learned 2. Demonstrate KSAOs to be learned 3. Create opportunities for trainees to practice skills 4. Provide feedback to trainees during & after practice

On-Site Training Methods On-the-job training Trainees observe & learn from more experienced employees Apprenticeship Formal program used to teach a skilled trade Job rotation Employees move to various jobs, departments, or areas of company

Off-Site Training Methods Classroom lectures Programmed instruction Linear programming Branching programming Simulators Controlled reproducibility Safety considerations Learning considerations Doug Menuez/Getty Images

Distance Learning & Computer-Based Training Can occur across multiple sites at once More affordable, learning-tailored alternative to live instruction I-O research just beginning Computer-based training Allow trainees to individualize their learning experience Trainees have more control over instruction

Training “Critical Thinking” Critical thinking skills require active involvement in applying principles under instruction Advances in technology make critical thinking in workplace more important than ever

Transfer of Training Degree to which trainees apply knowledge, skills, & attitudes gained in training to their job Transfer of training climate Workplace characteristics that either inhibit or facilitate transfer of training Horizontal Transfer Vertical Transfer

Table 7.3: Characteristics of a Positive Transfer of Training Climate

Module 7.3: Evaluating Training Programs Training evaluation Systematic collection of descriptive & judgmental information that can be used to make effective training decisions Several purposes of training evaluations

Training Criteria Kirkpatrick’s 4-level model Reaction criteria (Level 1) Learning criteria (Level 2) Behavioral criteria (Level 3) Result criteria (Level 4) Internal criteria External criteria

Augmented framework of Kirkpatrick’s model 1) Reaction Affective reactions Utility judgments 2) Learning Immediate knowledge Knowledge retention Behavior/skill demonstration 3) Transfer 4) Results

Training Needs Analysis

Utility Analysis Benefits of training programs based on: # of individuals trained Difference in job performance between trained & untrained employees Length of time training expected to influence performance Variability in job performance in untrained employees

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

Training Evaluation Designs Strongest training evaluation designs include: Random assignment of participants to conditions Control group Measures obtained before & after training Pretest Posttest Control Group Design

Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design - Example

Special Topics in Training Evaluations EEO issues Organizations should document training practices & programs thoroughly Special consideration of age discrimination Training/coaching for tests In general, score gains from coaching are small

Module 7.4: Specialized Training Programs Development Formal education, job experiences, mentoring relationships, & assessments of personality & abilities that help employees prepare for future

Management & Leadership Development Assessment centers Evaluate organizational, leadership, & communication skills Managers with high potential generally invited to participate 360 degree feedback Received positively & effective at improving performance

Management & Leadership Development (cont'd) Coaching Practical, goal-focused form of personal, one-on-one learning for busy professionals Practical, flexible, targeted form of individualized learning for managers/executives Informal training Include specific job assignments, experiences, & activities outside work

Table 7.7: Old & New Assumptions about Coaching

Specialized Training Programs Sexual harassment awareness training Quid pro quo Hostile working environment EEOC encourages following steps: Clearly communicate a zero tolerance policy Establish an effective grievance process Take immediate & appropriate action when employee complains

Sexual Harassment Training Supervisors should receive additional training beyond what employees receive Effective in increasing knowledge of & ability to identify sexual harassment More field research necessary to understand short- & long-term effects

Specialized Training Programs Ethics Training Appropriate approach likely is to use both selection & training to increase likelihood that employees will perform jobs ethically

Cross-Cultural Training (CCT) Critical in helping expatriates adapt to new environments Symptoms of culture shock Homesickness Irritability Loss of ability to work effectively

Cross-Cultural Training Designed to prepare individuals from one culture to interact more effectively with individuals from different cultures Cultural assimilator Culture-specific assimilator Culture-general assimilator