Bleeding after the 24th week of pregnancy Antepartum haemorrhage (APH) Antepartum haemorrhage is bleeding from the genital tract aher the 24th week of pregnancy, and before the onset of labour. As shown in Table 12.1, it is caused by: Bleeding from local lesions of the genital tract (incidental causes). Placental separation due to placenta praevia or placental abruption

Table 12.1 Causes of bleeding in late pregnancy Cause Incidence (%)Placenta praevia31.0Placental abruption22.0‘Unclassified bleeding’47.0of w hich:Marginal60.0Show20.0Cervicitis8.0Trauma5.0 Vulvovaginal varicosities2.0Genital tumours0.5Genital infections0.5Haematuria0.5Vasa praevia0.5Other0.5

Effect on the mother A small amount of bleeding will not physically affect the woman (unless she is already severely anaemic) but it is likely to cause her anxiety. In cases of heavier bleeding, this may be accompanied by medical shock and blood clofing disorders. The midwife will be aware that the woman can die or be leh with permanent morbidity if bleeding in pregnancy is not dealt with promptly and effectively.

Effect on the fetus Fetal mortality and morbidity are increased as a result of severe vaginal bleeding in pregnancy. Stillbirth or neonatal death may occur. Premature placental separation and consequent hypoxia may result in severe neurological damage in the baby.

Initial appraisal of a woman with APH Antepartum haemorrhage is unpredictable and the woman's condition can deteriorate at any time. A rapid decision about the urgency of need for a medical or paramedic presence, or both, must be made, ohen at the same time as observing and talking to the woman and her partner.

Assessment of maternal condition Take a history from the woman. Assess basic observations of temperature, pulse rate, respiratory rate and blood pressure, including their documentation. Observe for any pallor or restlessness. Assess the blood loss (consider retaining soiled sheets and clothes in case a second opinion is required). Perform a gentle abdominal examination, while assessing for signs of labour. On no account must any vaginal or rectal examination be undertaken, nor should an enema or suppositories be administered to a woman experiencing an APH as these could result in torrential haemorrhage.

Sometimes bleeding that the woman had presumed to be from the vagina may be from haemorrhoids. The midwife should consider this differential diagnosis and confirm or exclude this as soon as possible by careful questioning and examination.

Assessment of fetal condition The woman is asked if the baby has been moving as much as normal An attempt should be made to listen to the fetal heart. An ultrasound apparatus may be used in order to obtain information. However if the woman is at home and the bleeding is severe this would not be a priority. The midwife will need to ensure the women is transferred to hospital as soon as her condition is stabilized in order to give the fetus the best chance of survival. Speed of action is vital. Supportive treatment for moderate or severe blood loss and/or maternal collapse would consist of:

providing ongoing emotional support for the woman and her partner/relatives administering rapid fluid replacement (warmed) with a plasma expander, with whole blood if necessary administering appropriate analgesia arranging transfer to hospital by the most appropriate means, if the woman is at home. Management of antepartum haemorrhage depends on the definite diagnosis (see Table 12.2).

Table 12.2 Comparison of clinical issues in placental abruption and placenta praevia

Placenta praevia the placenta is partially or wholly implanted in the lower uterine segment. The lower uterine segment grows and stretches progressively after the 12th week of pregnancy. In later weeks this may cause the placenta to separate and severe bleeding can occur. The amount of bleeding is not usually associated with any particular type of activity and commonly occurs when the woman is resting. The low placental

location allows all of the lost blood to escape unimpeded and a retroplacental clot is not formed. For this reason, pain is not a feature of placenta praevia. Some women with this condition have a history of a small repeated blood loss at intervals throughout pregnancy whereas others may have a sudden single episode of vaginal bleeding aher the 20th week. However, severe haemorrhage occurs most frequently aher the 34th week of pregnancy. The degree of placenta praevia does not necessarily correspond to the amount of bleeding. A type 4 placenta praevia may never bleed before the onset of spontaneous labour or elective caesarean section in late pregnancy or, conversely, some women with placenta praevia type 1 may experience relatively heavy bleeding from early in their pregnancy.

Degrees of placenta praevia Type 1 placenta praevia The majority of the placenta is in the upper uterine segment Blood loss is usually mild and the mother and fetus remain in good condition. Vaginal birth is possible. Type 2 placenta praevia The placenta is partially located in the lower segment near the internal cervical os (marginal placenta praevia) Blood loss is usually moderate, although the conditions of the mother and fetus can vary. Fetal hypoxia is more likely to be present than maternal shock. Vaginal birth is possible, particularly if the placenta is anterior.

Type 3 placenta praevia The placenta is located over the internal cervical os but not centrally Bleeding is likely to be severe, particularly when the lower segment stretches and the cervix begins to efface and dilate in late pregnancy. Vaginal birth is inappropriate because the placenta precedes the fetus. Type 4 placenta praevia The placenta is located centrally over the internal cervical os and torrential haemorrhage is very likely. Caesarean section is essential to save the lives of the woman and fetus.

Incidence Incidence Placenta praevia affects 2.8 per 1000 of singleton pregnancies and 3.9 per 1000 of twin pregnancies There is a higher incidence of placenta praevia among women: with increasing age and parity in women who smoke and those who have had a previous caesarean section. Furthermore, it is known that there is also an increased risk of recurrence where there has been a placenta praevia in a previous pregnancy.

Management Immediate re-localization of the placenta using ultrasonic scanning is a definitive aid to diagnosis, and as well as confirming the existence of placenta praevia it will establish its degree. Relying on an early pregnancy scan at 20 weeks of pregnancy is not very useful when vaginal bleeding starts in later pregnancy, as the placenta tends to migrate up the uterine wall as the uterus grows in a developing pregnancy. Further management decisions will depend on:

the amount of bleeding the condition of the woman and fetus the location of the placenta the stage of the pregnancy.

Conservative management This is appropriate if bleeding is slight and the woman and fetus are well. The woman will be kept in hospital at rest until bleeding has stopped. A speculum examination will have ruled out incidental causes. Further bleeding is almost inevitable if the placenta encroaches into the lower segment; therefore it is usual for the woman to remain in, or close to hospital for the rest of her pregnancy. A visit to the special care baby unit/neonatal intensive care unit and contact with the neonatal team may also help to prepare the woman and her family for the possibility of pre-term birth.

A decision will be made with the woman about how and when the birth will be managed. If there is no further severe bleeding, vaginal birth is highly likely if the placental location allows. The midwife should be aware that, even if vaginal birth is achieved, there remains a danger of postpartum haemorrhage because the placenta has been situated in the lower segment where there are fewer oblique muscle fibres and the action of the living ligatures is less effective.

Immediate management of life-threatening bleeding Severe vaginal bleeding will necessitate immediate birth of the baby by caesarean section regardless of the location of the placenta. This should take place in a maternity unit with facilities for the appropriate care of the newborn, especially if the baby is preterm. During the assessment and preparation for theatre the woman will be extremely anxious and the midwife must comfort and encourage her, sharing information with her as much as possible. The partner will also need to be supported, whether he is in the operating theatre or waits outside.

If the placenta is situated anteriorly in the uterus, this may complicate the surgical approach as it underlies the site of the normal incision. In major degrees of placenta praevia (types 3 and 4) caesarean section is required even if the fetus has died in utero. Such management aims to prevent torrential haemorrhage and possible maternal death.

Complications Complication include: Maternal shock, resulting from blood loss and hypovolaemia. Anaesthetic and surgical complications, which are more common in women with major degrees of placenta praevia, and in those for whom preparation for surgery has been suboptimal. Placenta accreta, in up to 15% of women with placenta praevia. Air embolism, an occasional occurrence when the sinuses in the placental bed have been broken.

Postpartum haemorrhage: occasionally uncontrolled haemorrhage will continue, despite the administration of uterotonic drugs at the birth, even following the best efforts to control it, and a ligation of the internal iliac artery. A caesarean hysterectomy may be required to save the woman's life. Maternal death is rare in the developed world. Fetal hypoxia and its sequelae due to placental separation. Fetal death, depending on gestation and amount of blood loss.

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