Argument Moves from what is know to what is unknown

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Presentation transcript:

Argument Moves from what is know to what is unknown Difference between intuitively arguing and making well-founded arguments. Combination of scientific reasoning with requirements of public debates Foundation of modern debate is the Toulmin Model

Involves dealing with uncertainty You may wish to convince others that a claim is Absolutely true: need very strong data Probably true: strong data, small exceptions True in a few cases: weaker data, but still some proof for the claim

The toulmin model British philosopher, Stephen Toulmin, studied how people Develop arguments Determined validity Validity: a test for the logical coherence of an argument An argument that is not reasonably constructed is not valid You start with data and try to persuade the judge that you are warranted in moving from the data to the claim.

The First Triad Claim Evidence Warrant

Claim A conclusion of reasoning The proposition that the arguer desires to be accepted Factual claim: something either is or is not the case Value claim: what an individual thinks is good or bad Policy claim: what should or should not be done

Data Also known as grounds Testimony, examples, and statistics Testimony: opinion that is offered on behalf of the truth of a claim Experience General reputation Examples: instances used to demonstrate a claim’s validity Clearly observed and defined Statistics: demonstrate wide-spread effect of a claim

Warrant Shows the relevance and importance of the relationship between data and claim Evidence infers that a claim is true A generalization based on data

6 Main Strategies: Warrant → Claim 1. Generalization: connects what is true with what is likely true 2. Sign: connects the evidence as a sign, clue, or symptom of the claim. 3. Authority: connects the evidence to an authoritative source 4. Analogy: connects the evidence and claim using analogies 5. Causality: connects the evidence as being caused by the claim 6. Principle: connects the evidence and claim as an application of a broader, relevant principle.

He is a citizen of the United States From Data to Claim Data Warrant Claim He was born in Hawaii Hawaii is a state, & the Constitution declares everyone born in US a citizen; therefore, we can infer that a person born in Hawaii is a citizen He is a citizen of the United States

The Second Triad Backing Counterarguments/Rebuttals Qualifiers

Rebuttals, Reservations, and Qualifiers Rebuttal: a possible condition under which the relationship between data and claim would not hold; the exception to the rule Reservation: an announced exception to the rule Qualifier: a term that expresses the degree of confidence that you have in the relationship between data and claim Almost certainly = high confidence Simply possible = low confidence Probable

Data to Claim Data Warrant Claim Hard study and A grades in music, history, and language arts Hard study in this representative sample of cases leads to a sound generalization Hard study leads to good grades Qualifier: probable Reservation: unless some courses are too hard Rebuttal: examples of where hard study did not result in good grades