Work in the 21st Century Chapter 4 Job Analysis and Performance

Module 4.1: A Basic Model of Performance Basic definitions Performance: Actions or behaviors Effectiveness: Evaluation of results of performance Productivity: Ratio of effectiveness (output) to cost of achieving that level of effectiveness (input)

Campbell’s Model of Job Performance 3 direct determinants of job performance Declarative knowledge (DK) Procedural knowledge & skill (PKS) Motivation (M)

Campbell’s Determinants of Job Performance Figure 4.1 SOURCE: Based on Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sager (1993).

Campbell’s Model (cont'd) 8 basic performance components 3 are essential for every job Core task proficiency Demonstrated effort Maintenance of personal discipline

Table 4.1: Campbell’s 8 Performance Components

Figure 4.2: Full Campbell Model The Full Campbell Model Source: Based on Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, & Sager (1993).

Table 4.2: Maximum vs. Typical Performance

Criterion Deficiency & Contamination Ultimate (theoretical) criterion Ideal measure of all relevant aspects of job performance Actual criterion Actual measure of job performance obtained Differences between ultimate criterion & actual criterion represent imperfections in measurement – deficiency & contamination

Criterion Deficiency & Contamination (cont'd) When actual criterion is missing information that is part of behavior one is trying to measure Criterion contamination When actual criterion includes information unrelated to the behavior one is trying to measure

Figure 4.3: Criterion Contamination, Deficiency, & Relevance

Module 4.2: Extensions of the Basic Performance Model Task performance (Doing just what is expected) vs. Organizational Citizenship Behavior (Going beyond what is what is expected) CORBIS

Contextual Performance/OCB Task Performance Contextual Performance/OCB Requirements vary from job to job Individual differences tied to abilities & knowledge Activities part of job description Common to most jobs Individual differences tied to personality Activities not part of job description Supports organizational environment

Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) Behavior that goes beyond what is expected Altruism: Helpful behaviors directed toward individuals or groups within the organization Generalized compliance: Behavior that is helpful to the broader organization

Types of Performance Measures Objective performance measures Quantitative count of the results of work Judgmental measures Evaluation of the effectiveness of an individual’s work Personnel measures Typically kept in personnel file (e.g., absences, accidents, rate of advancement)

Adaptive Performance Beneficial due to changing nature of work Changing technologies alter work tasks Mergers, downsizing, & corporate restructuring Globalization & working in different cultures

Adaptive Performance: 8 Dimensions Handling emergencies or crisis situations Handling work stress Solving problems creatively Dealing with uncertain work situations Learning work tasks, technologies, & procedures Demonstrating interpersonal adaptability Demonstrating cultural adaptability Demonstrating physically oriented adaptability

Table 4.3: 8 Adaptive Performance Areas and Definitions

Expert Performance Performance exhibited by those who have practiced for at least 10 years & have spent average of 4 hours/day in deliberate practice Deliberate practice Individualized training on tasks selected by a qualified teacher

Constraints on Performance Counterproductive employee behaviors Voluntary behavior violating significant organizational norms & threatening organization, its members, or both Interpersonal deviance Organizational deviance

Hierarchical Model of Deviance (Sackett & DeVore) Figure 4.4 Hierarchical Model of Deviance SOURCE: Based on Sackett & Devore (2001).

Common Counterproductive Behaviors Dishonesty Employee theft or dishonest communications Absenteeism Failure to report for or remain at work as scheduled Sabotage Acts that damage, disrupt, or subvert the organization’s operations

Module 4.3: Job Analysis: Fundamental Properties & Practices Process that determines “essence” of a collection of tasks falling within scope of particular job title

Uses of Job Analysis Information Performance assessment Job description Training Workforce reduction Selection Recruiting Criterion development Promotion Compensation

Brief History of Job Analysis 1922 – Viteles & job psychograph Used in job analysis to display mental requirements of a job

Task-oriented job analysis Types of Job Analysis Task-oriented job analysis Begins with statement of actual tasks & what is accomplished by those tasks Worker-oriented job analysis Focuses on attributes of the worker necessary to accomplish tasks

KSAOs Knowledge Skill (e.g., computer or interpersonal skills) Ability Collection of discrete, related facts & information about a particular domain Skill (e.g., computer or interpersonal skills) Practiced act Ability Stable capacity to engage in a specific behavior Other characteristics: interests, personality, etc.

Figure 4.5: Role of Job Analysis in Assessment

Potential distorting influences in Job Analysis Desire to make one’s job look more difficult Attempts to provide answers that SME thinks job analyst wants Carelessness

How Job Analysis is Done Observation Interviews: Incumbent, Supervisor Critical incidents & work diaries Questionnaires/surveys Performing the job

Module 4.4: Job Analysis: Newer Developments Electronic performance monitoring Can be cost effective Potential for providing detailed & accurate worklog e.g., “This call may be monitored for quality control purposes.”

Cognitive Task Analysis Methods for decomposing job & task performance into discrete, measurable units with special emphasis on eliciting mental processes & knowledge content Think-aloud protocol Approach that investigates thought processes of experts who achieve high levels of performance

Cognitive Task Analysis (cont'd) Time consuming & requires a good deal of expertise to do well Consider the following to determine whether cognitive task analysis may be worthwhile: Persistent performance problems Costly errors or accidents Training difficult to transfer to job behavior Takes a long time to achieve high levels of performance

New Addition to Job Analysis Instruments Personality-Related Position Requirements Form (PPRF) Devoted to identifying personality predictors of job performance Intended to supplement job analysis

Summary of Job Analysis Process The more information gathered from the greatest number of sources, the better the job analyst can understand the job Most job analyses should include considerations of personality demands & work context

Occupational Information Network or O*NET Introduced by federal government to replace the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (D.O.T.) Electronic medium, so it can be updated instantaneously as changes occur

Figure 4.6: O*NET Databases SOURCE: Mumford & Peterson (1999).

Competency Modeling Identifies characteristics desired across all individuals & jobs within an organization Connects individuals with organizational viability & profitability Natural extension of job analysis logic, rather than a replacement

Module 4.5: Job Evaluation, Comparable Worth, & the Law Job evaluation: Method for making internal pay decisions by comparing job titles to one another & determining their relative merit Compensable factors Skills, responsibility, effort, & working conditions Equal Pay Act of 1963: requires “equal pay for equal work.”

Comparable Worth Notion that people who are performing jobs of comparable worth to an organization should receive comparable pay In the end, comparable worth is concerned with the social value of fairness

Job Analysis & Employment Litigation Competent job analysis does not guarantee validity, but absence of credible job analysis could be very damaging Growing gap between evolution of I-O psychology & Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978) SIOP Principles (2003) are more updated and consistent with current research