The Scientific Revolution science: called “natural philosophy”; “new science” scientist: term not coined until 1830s challenged Scholasticism, Aristotelianism

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) Polish priest & astronomer On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) heliocentric versus geocentric view of the solar system challenged Ptolemaic/Aristotelian models in use since antiquity Copernican system no more accurate than Ptolemaic—important as a new paradigm—slow to gain ground

Tyco Brahe (1546–1601) Danish astronomer rejected Copernican view recorded vast body of astronomical data drawn on by Kepler

Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) German astronomer, Brahe’s assistant advocated Copernican view figured out planets move in elliptical, not circular, orbits

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) Italian mathematician & natural philosopher broke ground using telescope—found heavens much more complex than previously understood became high-profile Copernican advocate articulated concept of a universe governed by mathematical laws

Isaac Newton (1642–1727) discovered laws of gravity—all physical objects in the universe move through mutual attraction (gravity); explained planetary orbits explained gravity mathematically Principia Mathematica (1687)

Impact on Philosophy Scientific revolution  major reexamination of Western philosophy Nature as mechanism—clock metaphor; God as clockmaker Purpose of studying nature changes: search for symbolic/sacramental meaning  search for usefulness/utility path to salvation  path to human physical improvement

Francis Bacon (1561–1626) English lawyer, government official, historian, essayist Considered father of empiricism, scientific experimentation Real accomplishment was setting an intellectual tone conducive to scientific inquiry Attacked scholastic adherence to intellectual authorities of the past One of the first European writers to champion innovation and change as goals contributing to human improvement

René Descartes (1596–1650) Gifted mathematician, inventor of analytic geometry Most important contribution: scientific method relying more on deduction (deriving specific facts from general principles) than empiricism Discourse on Method (1637)—rejection of scholastic philosophy and education in favor of mathematical models; rejection of all intellectual authority except his own reason Concluded (God-given) human reason was sufficient to comprehend the world Divided world into two categories: mind (thinking) & body (extension)

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) Most original political philosopher of 17th c. Enthusiastic supporter of New Science Turmoil of English Civil War motivated his Leviathan (1651) Leviathan: rigorous philosophical justification for absolutist government Humans not basically social, but basically self-centered State of nature is a state of war; life in this state is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

John Locke (1632–1704) Most influential philosophical and political thinker of the 17th c. Contrast with Hobbes First Treatise of Government: argued against patriarchal models of government Second Treatise of Government: government as necessarily responsible for and responsive to the governed Humans basically creatures of reason and goodwill Letter Concerning Toleration (1689): argument for religious toleration Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): described human mind as birth as a “blank slate” with content to be determined by sensory experience—reformist view, rejects Christian concept of original sin

The Rise of Academic Societies The New Science threatened vested academic interests and was slow to gain ground in universities Establishment of “institutions of sharing”: Royal Society of London (1660) Academy of Experiments (Florence, 1657) French Academy of Science (1666) Berlin Academy of Science (1700)

Women in the Scientific Revolution Generally excluded from the institutions of European intellectual life Queen Christina of Sweden (r. 1623–1654): brought Descartes to Stockholm to design regulations for a new science academy Margaret Cavendish (1623–1673) Observations Upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) Grounds of Natural Philosophy (1668) Maria Winkelmann—accomplished German astronomer, excluded from Berlin Academy

New Science and Religion Three major issues: Certain scientific theories and discoveries conflicted with Scripture. Who resolves such disputes: religious authorities or natural philosophers? New science’s apparent replacement of spiritually significant universe with purely material one. Representative incident: Roman Catholic authorities condemn Galileo, 1633—under house arrest for last nine years of his life Catholic Inquisition places Copernicus’s On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres on Index of Prohibited Books, 1616 Roman Catholic Church formally admits errors of biblical interpretation in Galileo’s case, 1992

Attempts to Reconcile Reason and Faith Blaise Pascal (1623–1662), French mathematician opposed both dogmatism and skepticism erroneous belief in God is a safer bet than erroneous unbelief Francis Bacon two books of divine revelation: the Bible and nature since both books share the same author, they must be compatible Economics: technological and economic innovation seen as part of a divine plan—man is to understand world and then put it into productive rational use

Continuing Superstition belief in magic and the occult persisted through the end of the 17th c. witch-hunts: 70,000–100,000 put to death, 1400–1700; 80% women village society: magic helped cope with natural disasters and disabilities Christian clergy: practiced high magic (Eucharist, Penance, Confession, exorcism

Baroque Art 17th c. painting, sculpture, architecture subjects depicted in naturalistic rather than idealized manner Michelangelo Caravaggio (1573–1610)