Chapter 9 Developmental Theories: From Delinquency to Crime to Desistance

Introduction Developmental theories are dynamic in that they emphasize that individuals develop along different pathways, and as they develop factors that were previously meaningful to them no longer are, and factors that previously meant little to them suddenly become meaningful.

Testosterone Levels of Human Males and Females Across the Lifespan Figure 9.2. Testosterone Levels of Human Males and Females Across the Lifespan Source: Ellis and Walsh, Criminology: A Global Perspective (2000)

Puberty, Adolescence, and Change During adolescence there is an increase in testosterone, changes in the ration of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, and the physical restructuring of the brain. The earlier the onset of puberty, the greater the level of problem behavior for both boys and girls. Around the age of 20, the transmitters start to decrease and the inhibitory transmitters start to increase. Thus, more adult-like personality traits emerge.

Table 9.1 Delinquency Risk Factors by Domain Domain Early Onset (Ages 6–11) Late Onset (Ages 12–14) Protective Factors Warm, supportive relationship with parents and other adults Parent’s positive evaluation of child’s peers Parental monitoring Poor parent-child relationship Low socioeconomic status Harsh, lax, or inconsistent parenting Poor monitoring, supervision Antisocial parents Broken home Abusive parents Family conflict a Harsh, lax, or inconsistent parenting Separation from parents Neglect Family Intolerant attitude toward deviance High IQ Being female Positive social orientation Perceived sanction for transgressions Restlessness Difficulty concentrating a General offenses Risk taking Aggression a Being male Physical violence Antisocial attitudes, beliefs Crimes against persons Low IQ Substance abuse ADHD/impulsivity Medical, physical problems Aggression Problem (antisocial behavior) Exposure to TV violence Dishonestya Individual

Table 9.1 Delinquency Risk Factors by Domain Stable, organized neighborhood Neighborhood crime, drugs Neighborhood disorganization Community Friends who engage in conventional behavior Weak social ties Antisocial, delinquent peers Gang membership Antisocial peers Peer group Commitment to school Recognition for involvement in conventional activities Poor attitude, performance Academic failure School Adapted from Office of the Surgeon General, 2001. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. a. Males only. Table 9.1 Delinquency Risk Factors by Domain Domain Early Onset (Ages 6–11) Late Onset (Ages 12–14) Protective Factors

ADHD & CD Risk factor: Something in individuals’ personal characteristics or their environment that increases the probability of violent offending. ADHD: A chronic neurological condition that is behaviorally manifested as constant restlessness, impulsiveness, difficulty with peers, disruptive behavior, short attention span, academic underachievement, risk taking behavior, and extreme boredom.

ADHD & CD ADHD is related to a wide variety of antisocial behaviors. Conduct disorder (CD): The persistent display of serious antisocial actions that are extreme given the child’s developmental level and have a significant impact on the rights of others. ADHD delinquents are more likely to persist in their offending as adults, but this probability rises dramatically for ADHD children also diagnosed with CD. ADHD does not represent a hopeless pathology that leads its victims down the road to inevitable criminality, particularly when CD is not present.

Sampson & Laub’s Age Graded Theory Age-graded theory is essentially a social control theory extended into adulthood to include adult bonds. People who bond well with conventional others build social capital: A store of positive relationships in social networks built on norms of reciprocity and trust developed over time upon which the individual can draw for support.

Sampson and Laub’s Age Graded Theory Life is a series of transitions which may change a person’s life trajectory in prosocial directions, which Sampson & Laub call turning points. Age-graded theory strongly emphasizes human agency. Let’s make a list: What are important TURNING POINTS in life? How could they affect Juvenile Delinquency

David Farrington’s Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential (ICAP) Theory The key concepts in ICAP theory are antisocial potential (AP), which is a person’s risk or propensity to engage in crime, and cognition, which is the thinking or decision making process that turns potential into actual process.

David Farrington’s Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential (ICAP) Theory Individuals with long-term AP tend to come from poor families, to be poorly socialized, low on anxiety, impulsive, sensation seeking, low IQ, and fail in school. Short-term AP can turn into long-term AP over time as a consequence of offending. Short-term AP individuals may temporarily increase their AP in response to certain situations or inducements.