Testing the Truth of Integration By 1960, African Americans had achieved integration on three fronts Brown v. Board integrated public schools Browder v. Gayle integrated public transport Sit-ins forced integrated public dining While integration was “officially” happening, many states and white individuals strongly resisted integration despite the law

Freedom Riders Test Public Transportation Integration Beginning in 1961, James Peck, a white civil rights activist worked with members of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) to test if public transportation was truly integrated Throughout May of 1960, Peck and African Americans, known as “freedom riders,” rode buses throughout the South to test if white Americans would try to stop them They hoped a violent response would encourage President Kennedy to create civil rights legislation The freedom riders were met with violence, but no law

James Meredith Tests Education Integration In September 1962, Air Force veteran James Meredith won a court case to attend Ole Miss University However, when he tried to attend the university, Governor Ross Barnett refused to let him register as a student President Kennedy ordered federal marshals to protect Meredith while Barnett encouraged whites to demonstrate On September 30, riots broke out, leading to 2 deaths and 200 arrests

Freedom Riders and Meredith Demonstrate the Need for Legislation Although court cases and protests had achieved change, such change was only superficial As seen by the Freedom Riders and Meredith, previous victories had not translated to true equality and integration For this reason, civil rights leaders wanted to keep pushing to create civil rights legislation supported by the president Doing so would better ensure enforcement of civil rights across the country

All Eyes on Birmingham and Washington, DC To ensure their voices were heard, civil rights leaders turned their attention to the two cities that would guarantee attention: Birmingham and Washington, DC Considered the most segregated city in the U.S., Birmingham would be the perfect place for civil rights leaders to send their message about integration As the capitol of the nation, Washington, DC would be the perfect place for politicians to take note The events that transpired between April 1963 and August 1963 in these two cities would forever alter the civil rights movement

The Legacy of the Marches on Birmingham and Washington, DC Birmingham put a global spotlight on the segregation and violence that African Americans endured daily It forced President Kennedy to finally propose civil rights legislation which would become known as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, one of the most important pieces of civil rights law However, the violence endured by participants worsened a growing divide in the movement, as many began to question the validity of nonviolence