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Still from The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) Chapter 34 An Age of Anxiety Still from The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920)

Postwar Pessimism The “lost generation” Term coined by Gertrude Stein, the writer/playwright/art patron and godmother of Americans in-exile in Paris after the war. Surreal scene of many men on the street lacking limbs in Paris, London, and Berlin Disillusionment after WWI and pessimism over idea of human progress Oswald Spengler, Decline of the West: multi-volume work by a retired school teacher theorizing that civilizations are like organisms, and that Western culture was in its dying phase.

Postwar Pessimism Many attacks on progress: Scientists and technological innovations were deemed responsible for the making of poisonous gas and explosives that killed millions and destroyed agriculture and cities. Science was blamed for the industrialized horrors of World War I. Most western societies granted suffrage to all men and women. Many intellectuals became disillusioned with democracy because they saw it as lacking positive values. Some worried about the “rule of inferiors.”

Revolution in Physics Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Theory of special relativity Neither time nor space are absolute values as they vary with observer; destabilizes orderly system of Newtonian physics Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976) The uncertainty principle: the act of observation interferes with whatever is being observed Concepts extended to humanities and social sciences

Revolution in Psychology Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) The life of the subconscious mind Repression of sexual desires, fears Interpretation of dreams Free association In the 1920s and 1930s: Widespread application of his theories to mythology, religion, literature, art, etc.

Experimentation in Art Photography makes realism irrelevant Art as creation, not reproduction Retreat to abstraction Les Fauves (“wild beasts”) Group of artists led by Henri Matisse and André Derain in the first decade of the 1900s. Favored wild colors and stepped away from realistic representation. Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Influence of non-western and ancient “primitive” styles

Experimentation in Art Henri Matisse, Blue Nude (Souvenir de Biskra), 1907 André Derain, Charing Cross Bridge, London, 1906, Fauvism

Experimentation in Art Portrait of Gertrude Stein, 1905-06 Bust of a Man, 1908 Guitar, 1912 é Pablo Picasso (1881–1973)

Experimentation in Architecture Staatliches Bauhaus: First school for modern design Director: Walter Gropius (1883-1969) Operated from 1919 to 1925 in Weimar and from 1925 to 1933 in Dessau; shut down by the Nazis Teachers are practitioners and artists rather than academics No extraneous ornamentation; designers should work for industry and mass production Bauhaus Aesthetic Leads to New Style of Skyscrapers “Glass boxes” of the “International style” Loved by businesses and governments

Experimentation in Architecture Bauhaus Dessau building designed by Gropius, opened in 1926 Poster for a 1923 Bauhaus exhibition Oskar Schlemmer, Bauhaus Stairway, 1932

Experimentation in Architecture “Glass Boxes” of the “International Style” United Nations Headquarters in Manhattan designed by Le Corbusier, completed in 1952 Lever House in Manhattan completed in 1952

European Origins of the Great Depression Austria/Germany borrow money from U.S. to pay war debts to France and England France and England pay debts owed to U.S. for WWI System dependent on flow of cash from U.S. Investors begin to pull out of Germany and Austria in 1928 in part to put the money in the booming New York stock exchange

New Technologies and the Great Depression Single-export countries devastated by declines due to new technologies that make them less in demands Reclaimed rubber destroys rubber-based economies of Dutch East Indies, Malaysia, Ceylon More widespread use of oil hurts the coal industry, which is vast and employs many people in the U.S.

Agricultural Surpluses and the Great Depression Overproduction in 1920s in Europe, United States, Canada, Argentina, and Australia. Strongest harvests in 1925, 1929 Wheat at lowest price in 400 years Farm income drops Less demand for manufactured goods in the agricultural sector Inventory surpluses The Dust Bowl: Mid-1930s drought and overused soil create conditions for massive wind erosion in the Great Plains, causing massive dust storms and exacerbating depression conditions

Black Thursday - October 24, 1929 Small Investors: The booming stock market of the 1920s led many brokers to sell to regular, middle-class people. Roughly 16% of American households owned stocks. Speculation: Stock could be purchased on as little as a third of the face value on the assumption they would continue to go up; brokers would lend the rest. Hints of slowdown in Europe in 1928-1929 Investors begin to sell off stocks and American market becomes volatile September: cycles of falling and then recovering Black Thursday Market turns down, triggering a swell of panic selling The collapse turns global, effecting every market except for Japan

U.S. Economic Collapse Inventory surplus leads to massive layoffs Layoffs lead to decreased demand, businesses fail 1932 industrial production of the U.S. is half of 1929 levels 44% of U.S. banks out of business by the early 1930s: Deposits lost (not insured) Because the world depended on the export of U.S. capital and the U.S. import markets, this created a global effect.

World Economic Collapse When U.S. investors called in loans, banks in Austria and Germany became vulnerable because they had been major recipients of U.S. loans. The Germany economy experienced a huge economic slide that by 1932 resulted in 35 percent unemployment and a 50 percent decrease in industrial production. Foreign trade fell sharply between 1929 and 1932 causing further losses in manufacturing and employment. .

World Economic Collapse Hardest hit: countries dependent on export of agricultural and manufactured goods Chile: Devastated since its economy was so reliant on the export of mined copper and nitrates. Caribbean: Sugar exports decline Argentina: Beef exports decline Brazil: Global devaluation of coffee hurts the Brazilian economy greatly and pushes industrialization efforts for economic diversity. Germany: Reliant on exporting manufactured goods, Germany suffered greatly: 5 million unemployed by 1932, severe hyperinflation, all exacerbated by reparation payments. Japan: Not too hard hit due to aggressive deficit spending by the government to develop heavy industries (especially munitions). .

Initial Government Attempts to Increase Demand U.S.: “planned scarcity” in 1934 Vegetables, fruits, crops, and animals destroyed: 10 million acres of cotton and 12,000 acres of tobacco plowed under, 6 million pigs slaughtered, and a whole California fruit crop allowed to rot on the vine. Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath: Bitterly angry passage points to the irony of the government destroying crops at a time when people are starving.

Initial Government Attempts to Increase Demand From The Grapes of Wrath (published 1939): “The people come with nets to fish for potatoes in the river and the guards hold them back; they come in rattling cars to get the dumped oranges, but the kerosene is sprayed. And they stand still and watch potatoes float by, listen to the screaming pigs being killed in a ditch and covered with quicklime, watch the mountains of oranges slop down to a putrefying ooze; and in the eyes of the people there is the failure; an in the eyes of the hungry there is a growing wrath.”

Social Effects of the Great Depression Thinkers like French physician Charles Richet believed that removing women from the workforce would solve the problem of male unemployment and increase the nation’s low birthrate. Great Depression caused enormous personal suffering Millions struggled for food, clothing, and shelter Marriage and birthrates declined, suicide increased Intensified social divisions and class hatreds

Social Effects of the Great Depression Great Depression Bread Line near the Brooklyn Bridge

©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. New U.S. Strategies Laissez-faire, “planned scarcity” approaches fail Economist John M. Keynes (1883-1946) challenged classical economic theory: the belief that capitalism was self-correcting and operated best if left alone. Keynes argued the depression was a problem of inadequate demand, not supply; therefore, governments should play an active role in stimulating economy and consumer demand. Keynes: Health of the economy is not measured by production, but by employment. The New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt: WWII Spending: Federal money injected into the economy in preparation for World War II ultimately lifts the depression conditions. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Franklin Delano Roosevelt The New Deal of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt anticipated Keynes's ideas. After 1932, Roosevelt put in place a protected banking system, massive public works projects, and farm subsidies Also, legislation established minimum wage, social security, workers' unions Creates the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

The Bolshevik Revolution In October 1917, Lenin led an armed uprising against the Provisional Government. Lenin renamed the Bolshevik Party as the Communist Party in order to win wider support. In December 1917 Lenin set up a secret police force known as the Cheka; agents spied on industrial workers and peasants. Lenin launched the “Red Terror” campaign in September 1918 against anti-Soviet peasants, striking workers, and anyone associated with the White Guard. Some estimates say 50,000 people were arrested and executed in this period.

War Communism, 1918-1922 Lenin pushes for rapid collectivization of farms and confiscations of private property Massively unpopular, Lenin backtracks in 1921 He initiates the New Economic Policy (NEP), which allows for partial privatization of the economy Lenin crushes workers’ strikes, peasant rebellions, and a sailor’s revolt.

New Economic Policy (NEP) The New Economic Policy (NEP) temporarily restored private enterprise in Russia. Large industries, banks, and transportation and communications facilities remained under state control. Government returned small-scale industries to private ownership. The government allowed peasants to sell their surpluses at free market prices. Technical schools were established.

Lenin’s Death Lenin suffers three debilitating strokes and dies 1924. Bitter power struggle among Bolshevik leaders ensues. Lenin had written that Stalin was too rude and lacking finesse to become the Secretary-General.

Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) Native of the nation of Georgia in the Caucasus Mother’s influence leads to Orthodox seminary education Stalin triumphs over party rivals Stalin: Name means “Man of steel” Advocates socialism in one country Consolidates rule over the Soviet Union by 1928

Stalin and Economic Planning Stalin initiates the First Five-Year Plan (1928-1933) Gosplan: the Soviet central planning agency controls all aspects of the economy Focuses on developing heavy industry, collectived farms with use of state-owned tractors, and electrification Massive collectivization of agriculture Kulaks: peasant land-holders who resisted collectivization; targets of government persecution Stalin halts collectivization in 1931 Proclaims its success, although reduction in productivity and famine resulted in 1932-33: millions die of starvation Destabilized Stalin’s power, heightening his paranoia

The Great Purge (1937-38) “Congress of Victors” in 1934 was the 17th annual meeting of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union, but was the last clandestine attempt to unseat Stalin, but the disloyalty was reported to Stalin. Later nicknamed the “Congress of Victims,” because of the 1,996 delegates, over 1,100 would be arrested over the next three years. The “Cleansing” Stalin removes all persons that he suspects of opposition from 1935-1938 Two-thirds of Central Committee Half of army’s high ranking officers Sent to labor camps or executed

The Growth of European Fascism From fasces, Roman symbol of authority Axe surrounded by wooden rods Originates with Benito Mussolini in 1919 Mussolini’s doctrine included elements of nationalism, corporatism, national syndicalism, expansionism, and anti-socialism Outside of Italy and Germany: Argentina, Japan, Peru, Paraguay, Romania, Spain, etc. ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Fascism: Common Elements Primacy of state over individual Devotion to a strong leader Ethnocentric Militaristic Anti-communist Chauvinistic Xenophobic ©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Fascism in Italy Poor showing of post-WWI Italian government Public disappointed with weak territorial gains Economic and social turmoil Mussolini, former newspaper editor, electoral successes in 1921 March on Rome, October, King Emmanuel III offers him office of prime minister Blackshirts: paramilitary outfit In 1926, he seizes power as Il Duce, “the leader”

Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) and the Nazi Party Hitler becomes chairman of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis) in 1921 Attempts to overthrow Munich government in 1923 “Beer Hall Putsch” Writes autobiography Mein Kampf in jail, massively popular; outlines his plans quite clearly Capitalizes on public discontent with postwar era War guilt clause Reparation payments Inability of major parties to come to consensus Anti-Semitism

Consolidation of Power Nazis become single largest party in parliament, 1930-1932 Weak president Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934) appoints Hitler as chancellor Suppresses opposition, abrogates constitutional and civil rights Makes the Nazis the sole legal party Destroys trade unions Purges judiciary, civil service of perceived enemies

The Racial State Theories of racial superiority, racial purity Policies of eugenics Compulsory sterilization of 30,000 Germans Abortions illegal for healthy Germans, mandatory for “hereditary ill” and “racial aliens” Euthanasia program kills 200,000 people with physical or mental handicaps between 1939 and 1945 Precursor to massacres of Jews, gypsies

Anti-Semitism Influence of nineteenth-century racism Nuremburg laws of 1935 define Jews on a racial basis Prohibits marriages between Jews and non-Jews Removal of Jews from civil service, schools Liquidation of Jewish-owned businesses or purchase by non-Jews Kristallnacht: major country-wide pogrom on Jews, November 9-10, 1938, encouraged by Nazi officials “Night of broken glass”