The Phoenicians -2,000 - 400 B.C. -some of the first known explorers to leave their local communities bordering the Mediterranean Sea -sailed along shore and open ocean -used their knowledge of tides, currents, and seasonal changes -learned to follow the North Star at night -marine science knowledge they gained was lost until after the dark ages.

The Polynesians 300 - 1500 A.D. used natural phenomena to migrate around the South Pacific in boats much like the reconstructed one pictured above Earliest known regular, long distance open ocean seafaring journey beyond the sight of land

Greeks Used the sun, constellations, North star, and sea conditions for navigation Used mathematical principles Noticed tide patterns based upon moon phases

Famous Greeks Eratosthenes- Earth‘s cicumference; developed a system of latitude and longitude Pytheas- researched the Atlantic from Italy to Norway; determination of latitude Aristotle- thought oceans occupied deepest part of earth's surface; began to catalog marine organisms Ptolemy- map that showed Earth as a sphere on a flat map

Early Europeans Negative contributions Suppressed advancements Poor communication between nations Myths replaced knowledge Little ocean exploration

Vikings -Reached Iceland, Germany, and North America -Explored the North Atlantic from their Scandinavian homeland using fast and stable ships (warships) -Reached Iceland, Germany, and North America -They had to develop detailed knowledge of currents, winds, tides and ocean phenomena -Lief Erikson- 1st to come to North America

Chinese Invented the magnetic compass Extensive trade routes Used large treasure ships with multiple masts 2 key ship innovations: Central rudders Watertight compartments

Contributions of Europeans Renaissance period Rediscovery of science by Greeks/Romans Motives: economics, politics, religion Vasco de Gama, Columbus, Dias, Prince Henry, Magellan, and Francis Drake

Captain James Cook British captain that made 3 voyages to map the Pacific between 1768 - 1779. Charted coasts of New Zealand and Australia - discovered Hawaiian Islands in 1778 Sampling of marine life Recorded data of ocean floor Attention to scientific method His voyages were the first to include a full-time naturalist.

John Harrison Invented the chronometer Captain James Cook used during his research Permitted accurate knowledge of longitude

Ben Franklin American contribution Mapped the Gulf Stream Current (1769) US Congress formed Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1807

Charles Darwin One of the early professional naturalists that made significant contributions to marine biology most famous for his later works on theories of evolution, was commissioned early in life as a naturalist on the H.M.S. Beagle expeditions (1831-1836). Darwin collected and studied numerous marine organisms during this famous voyage, which eventually lead to his famous subsidence theory of coral reef formation (for atolls), and a classification of barnacles that is still useful today.

Challenger Expedition The first expedition that was purely for marine science. Mostly funded by the British, it took 3.5 years (1872 - 1876) to investigate deep-sea regions of all the major ocean basins. The ship itself was converted for this scientific purpose from a wartime ship with sails and a steam winch. It was the first government funded, non-military ocean expedition. Results from this expedition included: 715 new genera 4,717 new species the deepest depth of the oceans found to be in the Mariana Trench (still the deepest) 50 volumes of information published in the British Museum and the word 'oceanography' used for the first time.

20th Century Expeditions Scientists reached both the north and south poles Atlantis- research vessel that confirmed the presence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Germany’s ship- Meteor which used optical and electronic equipment for investigation Glomar Challenger Trieste Alvin

The Glomar Challenger Expedition In 1968, proved the theory of plate tectonics by developing the technology for deep-sea drilling. The samples from this United States expedition focused on the ocean bottom and provided specimens and data to substantiate the theory of plate tectonics and continental drift. The Glomar Challenger ship was built specifically for this purpose with a specialized drilling rig in the middle (with 10,000 meters of pipe), engines to position the ship sideways and rotate it, and new satellite navigation equipment and computers.

Submersibles were built like small submarines to take marine scientists to even deeper depths and keep the divers at one atmosphere pressure to avoid the physiological complications associated with scuba, helmets and bells. The first models could hold several people (usually a submersible pilot and one or two passengers), had small ports allowed limited visibility but allowed marine scientists to actually see and photograph the deeper portions of the ocean. Submersibles like the Alvin, run by WHOI still operate for deep-sea exploration today.

Trieste The deepest point of water is the Challenger Deep located in the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. In 1960, sponsored by the US Navy,  Jacques Piccard and Lieutenant Don Walsh manned Bathyscaphe Trieste and descended to the bottom. The world's longest dive took almost 6 hours and reached a measured depth of  10,916 meters or 35,813 feet.

Dr. Ballard & Alvin 14,764 feet Made over 150 dives Titanic

Johnson Sealink 2 submersibles 3,000 feet Panoramic views Manipulator arms Suction devices Plankton samplers Video camera

Today’s Technology Technology has changed marine science over the years. Sonar (Sound Navigation Ranging) originally for military use. This allowed humans to 'see' the bottom and other solid objects underwater as sound was transmitted from a vessel with its reflection received and translated into a profile of the ocean bottom (or midwater object). used by marine scientists to profile the bottom of the ocean (as a fathometer) and outline organisms in the water column.

ROV’s ROV's (remotely operated vehicles) are now used with and without submersibles to view deep areas of the ocean without the dangers of sending humans down to these depths.

-The ROVs carry all types of cameras and sampling equipment -The ROVs carry all types of cameras and sampling equipment. These have become the latest technology for viewing the ocean. The images from the ROV cameras are transmitted to the vessel overhead and the ROV operator (on the vessel) can maneuver the sampling equipment and cameras to the best positions. -Dr. Ballard used ROVs to explore the inside of the Titanic.

Remote sensing using transmitters and satellites now allows information to be gathered from almost any place. Transmitters placed on seals, sea lions, and whales send information when the organism surfaces as to the depths of their dives, the temperature of the water, and other things. This information is bounced from the satellite and picked up almost instantaneously so that the location of the organism and its information is known. The same thing occurs from buoys placed in the ocean where periodic measurements of temperature, wind, currents and such is transmitted. Satellites can also be programmed to send almost instant monitoring of the oceanographic conditions all over the world including sea level and color.

LORAN C Long Range Navigation Radio signal transmitters Improved accuracy 24 hour navigation Made shipping safer Only work with transmitters

GPS Global Positioning System US military 1990s Signals from satellites Works and land and sea More accurate

Scuba Diving Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus Jacques Cousteau introduced first practical scuba in 1943 Advantages to scuba (p.2-41)