Meaning Based Grammar: The Argument for the Auxiliary Presented by: Kris Mitchell

Outline Important Concepts Proposed Sentence Structures Semantic Origins Key Concepts Proposed Sentence Structures Core Auxiliaries Semi-Auxiliaries Modal Rules for Auxiliaries (NICE) Notes on Ordering

Semantic Origins Natural Semantic Metalanguage (NSM) Universal Meaning (Wierzbicka & Goddard) Be & Do

Key Concepts Meaning in grammar is greatly affected by Auxiliary choice: tense, aspect, voice, modality, ability, perspective, emphasis and much more. All of the above grammar forms (meanings) have an Auxiliary to match. Exception: Natural Be Verb (Copula) has no auxiliary. Note on Exception: Other Auxiliary forms may be added to Natural Be Verb to influence meaning. Auxiliaries are a choice that represent meaning/message. Note: Changing only the auxiliary in a sentence changes the meaning, and therefor the message.

Key Concepts Auxiliaries are made up of 2 key pieces or reaction points. Piece 1: Reacts to the subject and is responsible for Sub-Aux Agreement (Sub-V agreement) Piece 2: Both contains and reacts to the verb and is responsible for verb form, (aka conjugation) : infinitive, past and present participles. Note: The past and present simple aux pieces may appear in 2 forms: Separate (emphasis): Above rules apply. or Joined (Regular meaning): In this case, Piece 1 becomes responsible for both Sub-Aux Agreement and Verb form at the same time.

Sentence & Question Structure Sub (aux)-V (o/c). Aux Sub V (o/c)? QP Aux Sub V (o/c)? *VP = (aux)-V (o/c)

Core Auxiliaries Simple Future Present: (do/does) do Passive* Perfect Simple (Modal): will do Be-Aux Phrases: (do) do (does) do be going to do Past: (did) do be about to do Passive* Perfect be done Present: have/has done Simple Present Passive: am/are/is done Past: had done Continuous Simple Past Passive: was/were done be doing Present: am/are/is doing Past: was/were doing

Semi-Auxiliaries Common: Used to: (did) use to do Passive Semi-Aux: (do/does/did) have to do (did) use to do (do/does/did) get to do (do/does/did) seem to do Passive Semi-Aux: (do/does/did) mean to do (do/does/did) get done (do/does/did) happen to do (do/does/did) tend to do Interesting Cases: (do/does/did) need to do (do/does/did) like to do (do/does/did) dare to do (do/does/did) want to do (do/does/did) love to do

Modal Auxiliaries Common: Special Cases: need do dare do should do need do can do dare do could do would do Modal Auxs with Be: may do be able to do must do be likely to do would rather do had better do be supposed to do ought to do be going to do (future) will do (future) be about to do (future)

Rules for Auxiliary Behaviour NICE (Howes, 2007) Negation: The negative (not/n’t) always attaches to the aux. Note: If more than one Aux, negation attaches to 1st Aux in the sequence Exception: Natural Be Verb Inversion: Auxs are switched with subjects to create question grammar. Notes: i) Only the 1st Aux in the sequence is switched ii) Prep are not switched

Rules for Auxiliary Behaviour NICE (Howes, 2007) Code: Auxs are always used for short forms (ellipsis) Notes: i) usually just the 1st in sequence but can be more. ii) The prep and neg are used. Exception: Natural Be Verb Emphasis: All Auxs may be emphasized through intonation. Special Cases: Simple & Semi-Aux Option: The 1st Aux piece (do/does/did) may appear in its original position.

Notes on Ordering Common Modals: Always appear first in sequence, and are never combined with other common modals. Core Passive Aux: Always appears last The rest are quite flexible, and order will vary depending on meaning. Note: This includes Be-Aux Modals.

References Goddard, C. (2011). Semantic analysis: A practical introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Howes, C. (2007). Auxiliary verbs: A dynamic syntax account (MSc thesis). King’s College London, UK. Retrieved from http://www.christinehowes.com/papers/Howes_AuxiliaryVerbs_A_DS_Account-Howes.pdf