COGNITION Def: the mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses
MEMORY
MEMORY Def: Learning that has continued over time Information processing model: Encoding—receive info in a usable way; Rehearsal—for storage; Retrieval— recalling memories
MULTI-STORE MODEL 3 stages of memory 1) Sensory memory—process everything we sense (iconic and echoic) 2) Short-term memory (working memory)—small amounts of info stored for up to 30 seconds 3) Long-term memory—can store info indefinitely; often based on relative importance; requires encoding
3 TYPES OF LTM Episodic memory: stories of our lives and experiences Semantic memory: common kinds of knowledge Procedural memory: how to do things
EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT MEMORIES
AUTOMATIC PROCESSING Info processing of much repeated or well- learned activities that occurs w/o our being aware of it This uses implicit memories— unconsciously retrieved (AKA: nondeclarative memory) Priming: using cues to activate hidden memories
EFFORTFUL PROCESSING Requires attention and conscious effort Explicit memory: past knowledge that is consciously brought to mind (AKA: declarative memory)
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
CHARACTERISTICS OF STM Limited space; limited time Memory span: # of items a person can remember and repeat George Miller wrote “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two”—says STM can hold onto 7 +/- 2 items
HELP WITH STM Chunking: combining/grouping bits of related info Maintenance rehearsal: repeating info to prolong presence in STM
LONG-TERM MEMORY
CHARACTERISTICS OF LTM Unlimited Shallow processing: memorizing (during maintenance rehearsal) Elaborative rehearsal: link new info w/existing memories and knowledge in LTM Deep processing: elaborative rehearsal along w/meaningful analysis
MEMORY PROCESSING, STATES, AND EFFECTS
RECOGNITION The correct identification of previously learned material Multiple choice test
RECALL Direct retrieval of facts or info
MEMORY RECONSTRUCTION An approach to understanding memory as a cognitive process and the errors that occur within it Pseudo memories: false memories that a person believes to be true
STATE DEPENDENT MEMORY Memory retrieval that is most efficient when individuals are in the same state of consciousness
MOOD-DEPENDENT MEMORY Recall of info that can be retrieved while in a mood similar to when it was acquired
CONTEXT DEPENDENT MEMORY Recall of info while in the same environment as when acquired
TIP-OF-THE-TONGUE STATE Feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT When you recall the first (primacy effect) and the last (recency effect) items in a list more easily than items in the middle
RELEARNING Easier to relearn something Savings score: amount of time saved when relearning something
EIDETIC MEMORY Photographic memory Rare in adulthood
EXCEPTIONAL MEMORIES Savant syndrome Highly Superior Autographical Memory (hyperthymesia)
MEMORY AND BIOLOGY
LONG-TERM POTENTIATION (LTP) Lasting strengthening of synapses that increases neurotransmissions Believed to be the basis of learning
PARTS OF THE BRAIN Hippocampus: transfers info from STM to LTM explicit memory Frontal lobe: declarative and episodic memory Amygdala: smell; emotional reactions Cerebellum: procedural memories Basal ganglia: memory retrieval and procedural memory; creating and maintaining habits
BRAIN TRAUMA AND MEMORY Retrograde amnesia: forgetting events that occurred before an injury or trauma; usually episodic memories are lost Anterograde amnesia: hippocampus gets damaged, resulting in the inability to create long term memories and forcing a person to always live in the present
FORGETTING
EBBINGHAUS FORGETTING CURVE Hermann Ebbinghaus Curve is the exponential loss of info shortly after learning it Found forgetting usually occurs due to encoding failure (memory never formed in the first place) Improved with memory cues: a stimulus associated with a memory
TRACE DECAY THEORY Addresses memory traces: physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that occur when memories are stored The more you rehearse, the stronger the memory trace
INTERFERENCE THEORY 2 ways to interfere with creation of new memories 1) Retroactive interference: new memories impair retrieval of older memories 2) Proactive interference: prior learning inhibits or interferes with the recall of later learning
REPRESSION AND SUPPRESSION Repression: pushing of painful, embarrassing, or threatening memories out of awareness or consciousness Suppression: conscious process of deliberately trying to forget something that causes distress
UNRELIABLE AND FALSE MEMORIES
FLASHBULB MEMORIES Vivid and detailed memories created during times of personal tragedy, accident, or emotionally significant world events Could be inaccurate for various reasons
EYEWITNESS MEMORIES Questioning eyewitnesses could create misinformation effect: new info alters the way previous info is held in memory Source amnesia: the inability to remember the source of a memory while retaining its substance
WAYS TO IMPROVE MEMORY AND LEARNING
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TRANSFER Positive transfer: when mastery of one task aids learning or performing another Negative transfer: mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another task
USEFUL TIPS Distributed practice: spacing out your practice (better than massed practice) Priming Recite out loud Minimize distraction Get enough sleep Overlearn Use mnemonics: memory tricks or aids