Mechanisms by which HRV increases susceptibility to bacterial infection. Mechanisms by which HRV increases susceptibility to bacterial infection. (1) HRVs.

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Mechanisms by which HRV increases susceptibility to bacterial infection. Mechanisms by which HRV increases susceptibility to bacterial infection. (1) HRVs disrupt epithelial cell barrier function by the dissociation of zona occludens 1 (ZO-1) from the tight junction complex via the increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby facilitating the transmigration of bacteria (28). (2) HRVs promote Staphylococcus aureus internalization into non-fully permissive cultured pneumocytes via the increased release of IL-6 and IL-8 and expression of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) on neighboring uninfected cells (175). (3) HRVs stimulate Streptococcus pneumoniae adhesion to human tracheal epithelial cells by inducing the surface expression of platelet-activating factor receptor (PAFR) via NF-κβ expression (173) and to nasal epithelial cells via increased gene and protein expression levels of fibronectin, PAFR, and carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule (174). (4) Compared to non-HRV-activated macrophages, HRV-activated macrophages demonstrate reduced levels of secretion of TNF-α and IL-8 when exposed to bacterial Toll-like receptors (TLRs) (lipopolysaccharide and lipoteichoic acid) (176). SP-1, promoter-specific transcription factor 1. Samantha E. Jacobs et al. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2013; doi:10.1128/CMR.00077-12