Vocabulary/Lexis LEXIS: n., collective, uncountable Subject-specific lexis Lexical item Lexical set Let’s get practical… : vocabulary possible collocations?

Vocabulary Possible collocations: - Adjectives: Active, large - Verbs: to widen, build, increase, expand

WORDS Building blocks of the language In string to form phrases-sentences-texts Are single units of meaning (also compound, multi-word verbs, even idiom) Let’s get practical….: provide examples for Compounds Multi-word verbs Idioms

WORDS Problematic definition but typical features: -one word can be substitued by another word but not anything less than a word (ex. suffix) -words have mobility that parts of words do not have -we can place additional words btw existing words, not btw parts of words (ex. multi-word verbs)

IDIOMS Since the meaning of an idiom cannot be predicted from the meanings of constituents (or, better, from the individual meanings of the morphemes it comprises) idioms may be considered as a type of multiword lexeme.

IDIOMS ex. Steve kicked the bucket. Ambiguity: they may have either a literal or an idiomatic meaning ex. Steve kicked the bucket. Let’s get practical…: a non-native speaker usig idioms may sound unnatural!

IDIOMS Ex. They’re like chalk and cheese 2. Syntactic peculiarities: in an idiomatic expression, none of the words can be replaced by a synonym or omitted. Ex. They’re like chalk and cheese * They’re like cheese and sand 7 7

Also, you cannot: delete a word from it (to spill --- beans) change the order of the words in it (they’re like chalk and cheese); delete a word from it (to spill --- beans) add a word to it (face the classical music) change its grammatical structure (the music was faced) .

WORD CLASSES The position in which members of a word class occour in a sentence is key factor 9 major word classes : 4 open + 5 closed NB: changes in closed word classes are rare Let’s get practical….:ex. non-gender specific “they” + singular verb form

Open word classes: NOUNS 1. Common nouns -can be preceded by definite article -concrete and abstract nouns. 2. Proper nouns: something or someone unique Let’s get practical… “the” is rare but possible (ex .The London Stock Exchange)

Open word classes: LEXICAL VERBS Dynamic : walk, drive, study…….. Stative (refer to a state or condition): mean, understand, be….. Let’s get pratical…:–ing forms? N.B. Many word forms are members of more than one word class . This is particularly true for nouns and verbs

Open word classes: ADJECTIVES ● position in the sentence : - attributive position (before a noun) - predicative position (after a noun) ● gradable (most of them): we can indicate to what extent the quality referred to by an adj. applies Ex.: very Let’s get practical…: other examples?

Open word classes: ADJECTIVES Intensifiers extremely fairly absolutely quite really enogh far more

Open word classes: ADVERBS Decribing purpose / provide a commnt (ex. obviously)/ indicate a «voice» (ex. frankly)/text cohesion (ex. therefore) Let’s get practical: other examples? Only occasionally they are crucial for sentence’s meaning

Closed word classes: PRONOUNS 1) Primary pronouns (personal possessive, reflective) 2) Wh-pronouns (interrogative, relative) 3) Indefinite pronouns (some, any, none) 4) Demostrative pronouns

Closed word classes: AUXILIARIES 1) Primary auxiliaries/auxiliary verbs: have, be, do Functions: tense, question, negation 2) Modal auxiliaries: can, could, shall, should, must, will, would, may, might Function: provide shades of meaning to lexical verb Let’s get practical…: rank their degree of certainty

Closed word classes: PREPOSITIONS “used to show the relationship between two elements”? “Tom loves Jane”?! To avoid notional definition we have to look at grammatical features: prepositions are usually followed by noun phrase.

Closed word classes: PREPOSITIONS Simple (one word) and complex prepositions Of time: about, after, at, before, between…… Of place: near, over, on, from , in………. Of cause, purpose, association, attitude and so on: about, according to, because……. Let’s get practical….: some prepositions have more than one semantic function (ex: about)

Closed word classes: CONJUNCTIONS Used to join linguistic elements COORDINATING: and, but, or/nor SUBORDINATING: (ex.: unless, although) They can be simple (one word) or complex Let’ get practical: examples?