Socioemotional Development In Early Childhood

Emotional and Personality Dev. Many changes occur in children’s developing minds Development of self Emotional maturity Moral understanding Gender awareness

The Self In the 2nd year of life children learn self-recognition They also begin to learn self-understanding According to Erikson, in early childhood, children work on the stage of initiative vs. guilt Life requires active, purposeful, responsible behavior Identify intensively with parents, especially same sex

Parents seem to be beautiful and powerful, but also unreasonable, disagreeable, and sometimes dangerous Children have a surplus of energy and forget failures quickly at this stage. Children are exuberant about the world around them.

Children develop their conscience at this age Initiative may bring them rewards, but also guilt and a possible lower self-esteem

Self-understanding and Others Self-understanding is the child’s representation of self, the substance and content of self conception First physical descriptions of self vs. others, material possessions, and physical activities I am tall and like to ride my bike. My sister is shorter and likes to read books. Next, children describe their psychological traits I am brave and happy. I am funny. Children’s descriptions are usually unrealistically positive

Children are so optimistic because they believe Desired competence = actual competence Ability = effort Don’t compare their ability to others socially DO compare their present ability to what they could do at an earlier age.

Begin to describe others in terms of psychological traits “My teacher is nice” Even at 4-5 years of age children know that people may do/say things in order to obtain things or avoid trouble 3-4 year-olds understand commitments to joint obligations

The newest research contradicts Piaget’s research that children are mainly egocentric.

Emotional Development Developing emotions helps children make sense of other people’s emotions and begin to control their own emotions. Self-awareness must develop before some emotions Pride Shame Embarrassment guilt

Parent’s responses to children’s behavior has quite a bit to do with children’s emotions. Shame: “You should feel bad for biting your sister” Pride: “You put a lot of effort into your project!” Guilt: “We can’t go to the movies because we have to replace the lamp you broke.” Embarrassment: “Here, let me spit wash the chocolate off your face.”

Understanding emotions Increases quite a bit Linked to facial expressions Emotions effect behavior Used to influence others Particular situations bring particular emotions Understanding emotions in linked to prosocial behavior

4-5 years they can reflect on emotions 2-4 years they can describe emotions and give causes and consequences of feelings 4-5 years they can reflect on emotions The same event can bring different emotions for different people Awareness of managing their own emotions Give strategies to cope with certain emotions

Regulating emotions Helps manage demands and conflicts when interacting with others Parents play an important role in helping children regulate emotions Emotion-coaching parents Emotion-dismissing parents

Emotion-coaching parents Monitor child’s emotions Negative emotions are teaching opportunity Assist in labeling emotions Coach them in dealing with emotions Use more scaffolding and praise More nurturant Children self-sooth better, focus better, and have fewer behavior problems.

Emotion-dismissing parents Deny, ignore, or try to change negative emotions Emotions play a strong part in peer relationships + abilities benefit children Popularity Positive relationships - abilities Rejection Negative relationships

Moral Development The development of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions with other people. Various theories describe how children acquire morals Freud Piaget Behavioral approach Kohlberg

Freud’s Moral Feelings Psychoanalytic theory stresses the feelings of anxiety and guilt Superego is developed to reduce anxiety, avoid punishment, and keep parent’s affection Empathy – echoing another person’s feelings contributes to moral development Requires “perspective taking” – identifying and anticipating other’s emotions

Moral Reasoning - Piaget Two stages – based on watching and interviewing Heteronomous morality – age 4-7, justice and rules are unchangeable Breaking 12 cups accidentally is worse than 1 cup intentionally Rules are rules, period. Immanent justice, or immediate punishment Ages 7-10 transition period Autonomous morality – 10+ rules and laws are created by people and intentions should be judged as well as the consequences Recognize rules are merely conventions, and may change

Immanent justice Punishment is swift and unavoidable Karma type of belief Piaget argued that children become more sophisticated as they age with their morality Give and take of social relationships Peers develop moral reasoning more than parents Rules are often handed down with no negotiation or reasoning

Moral Behavior - Behaviorism Focus is on reinforcement, punishment, and imitation Rewards cause repeated behaviors Children will adopt behaviors of their models Punishments will reduce or eliminate behaviors May have adverse side effects we’ll talk about later in the chapter

Situation can also change moral behavior Telling the truth to Mom, versus the teacher Studies show that no child is totally honest or lies Resisting temptation is closely tied to self control which involves delayed gratification Theory heavily relies on cognitive factors

Gender Social and psychological dimensions of being male or female Gender identity – sense of being male or female (3yrs) Gender roles – expectations of how females or males act, think and feel Biology plays a clear role in how these develop, but we’ll be focusing on the social aspects of gender

Psychological gender differences are believed to be due to social experiences Three main theories Social role theory Psychoanalytic theory Social cognitive theory Social role theory – gender differences result from the contrasting roles of men and women Women – less power/status, control fewer resources, more domestic work, less paid employment, lower pay and roles

Psychoanalytic theory of gender Oedipus or Electra complex Ends up adopting same-sex parent’s characteristics Problems Happens earlier than 5 years old Occurs even without same sex parent present Social Cognitive theory of gender Gender acquired through observation and imitation, rewards and punishment of what is “appropriate” Treated differently from birth Parents, culture, schools, peers, media, other family, etc.

Parental influence of gender Influence by action and example In many cultures mothers socialize daughters to be obedient and more responsible than sons. More restrictions for daughters Fathers show more attention to sons and engage them in more activities. Fathers also promote their sons’ intellect more Most parents, even in the western world, continue to assign traditional gender roles to their children

Peer Influences Peers are very important once children begin interacting Playgrounds have been called “gender schools” Peers reward gender appropriate behavior and punish behavior that is deemed inappropriate Boys have the greater pressure to conform to male roles “tomboy” is an acceptable title for a girl

Gender and peers From age 3-12 children tend to prefer friends of the same gender Boys tend to prefer larger social groups than girls and organize whole group activities, while girls group up in 2’s or 3’s Girls tend to talk instead of play physically, while boys participate in Competition Conflict Displays of ego Risk taking Displays of dominance Rough-and-tumble play

Cognitive influences Child develops gender role through social interactions Gender schema theory Develops as children learn what is gender appropriate and inappropriate in their culture Children are internally motivated to act in accordance with what is appropriate for their gender

Families Social relationships beyond attachment Baumrind’s 4 parenting styles Authoritarian Authoritative Neglectful Indulgent

Authoritarian Parenting Restrictive and punitive Firm limits and little give and take “You do it my way, or else” Rules are rigid, but not explained Children are often fearful, unhappy and anxious about comparing themselves to others Children do not initiate activity and are weak communicators

Authoritative Parenting Places limits and controls, but encourages independence Warm and nurturant “Next time that situation needs to be handled differently. You know you shouldn’t have done that” Show pleasure and support to child’s good behavior Children are often cheerful, self-controlled, and self-reliant Achievement oriented, cope well with stress & friendly

Neglectful Parents (uninvolved) Parent’s lives are more important than child’s Parent is not involved in child’s life Children tend to be socially incompetent Tend to have no self-control and are not independent Children have low self-esteem, are immature and do not have strong ties to family In adolescence may show truancy and delinquency

Indulgent Parents (permissive or laissiae faire) Parents are highly involved with children, but there are no limits or controls on child Children do what they want Parents do this deliberately because they believe child will be creative and confident Children rarely learn respect for others through this method and do not control behavior Domineering, egocentric and noncompliant and have poor peer relationships

These parenting styles do not show causation. Meaning, that the parenting style may not be the reason the child behaves that way. It may be that the child’s behavior brings about that parenting style. Genetic factors may influence parenting style and child’s behavior

Culture differences in parenting styles can often change the outcome of the child’s behavior Middle Eastern cultures tend to be dominated by males and strict codes of conduct Asian cultures tend to include a lot of control, and this control may lead to training which the consequence may be high academic achievement

Punishment Corporal punishment is legal in all 50 states 26% report frequent spanking 67% report frequent yelling US and Canada have highest corporal punishment approval rates Corporal punishment is associated with immediate compliance, but further aggression by children

Corporal punishment has also been linked to Low levels of moral internalization Low levels of mental healthiness

Why to avoid spanking or other physical punishments: Adult is modeling out of control behavior in stressful situations Punishment instills fear, rage and avoidance – child may avoid that parent due to negative emotions Punishment tells what NOT to do instead of correcting behavior Parents take punishment too far and become abusive

Coparenting Problems Poor coordination between parents Undermining one parent by the other Lack of cooperation and warmth Aloofness of one parent Coparenting is more beneficial than either maternal or paternal care alone in terms of children’s development of self control

Child maltreatment Four main types of child maltreatment Physical abuse – infliction of physical injury, either purposefully, or accidentally Child neglect – failure to provide a child’s basic needs Physical, emotional, educational Most common type of abuse Sexual abuse – fondling, exploitation, etc. Emotional abuse – acts or omissions that could cause behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems

Emotional abuse almost always is present with other forms Causes (combinations of): Culture Family characteristics Developmental characteristics Abuse can span generations

Consequences of abuse Poor emotion regulation Attachment problems Peer relation problems Difficulty adapting to school Psychological problems: delinquency, depression More likely to be involved in violent romantic relationships Sexual risk taking

What can be done to prevent child maltreatment? Consequences cont. Substance abuse Difficulty with maintaining adult relationships Increased risk for financial difficulties Increased risk for employment difficulties What can be done to prevent child maltreatment? Home visits to reduce stress and increase coping Psychotherapy to improve attachment

Sibling relationships 80% of American children have a sibling Conflicts are common Parents tend to do one of 3 things Intervene to try to solve conflict Admonish or threaten Do nothing

Sibling relationships help kids learn: Helping Sharing Teaching Fighting Compromising Playing, and Communication

According to Dunn, the three most important characteristics of sibling relationships are: Emotional quality of the relationship Familiarity and intimacy of the relationship Variation in sibling relationships

Birth order Linked to personality characteristics What accounts for differences? Other factors are likely more important than birth order What do you think about your birth order and personality?

The Changing Family US has one of the highest %’s of single parents in the world Working parents Divorced parents Homosexual parents

Working parents More mothers are working than did in our history The nature of a parent’s work matters more than if the parent works, or not Parents with negative work experiences tend to bring negativity home and put stress on the family Children (esp. girls) of working mothers tend to do less gender stereotyping and have more equal views of men and women

Divorced families Divorce peaked in the 60’s/70’s and has declined since US rates are higher than other countries 40% of children born to married parents will experience divorce Questions Effects of divorce on children Should parents stay together for children How much do family processes matter after divorce What factors influence a child’s vulnerability to negative effects What about socioeconomic status

Child’s adjustment to divorce Child of divorce show poorer adjustment, esp those who have been through multiple divorces More likely to experience effects similar to those of abused children Academic problems Less socially responsible Sex, drugs, alcohol Lower self esteem Vulnerable in relationships **Most children do not have significant problems** 25%

Stay together for kids sake? Marital conflict can be harmful to adults and kids Financial resources and increased risks must be considered Emotion security theory – children appraise marital conflict in terms of safety and security Negative – hostile and destructive displays of behavior Positive – calm discussions and working together

Family processes A lot!! Harmonious parenting after divorce greatly improves children’s adjustment Parenting skills improve

Child’s vulnerability and negative consequences Depends upon: Personality Temperament – easier temperament= easier adjustment Gender Custody situation

Socioeconomic status Mothers with custody have ½ to ¼ reduction in income Father with custody have 1/10 the reduction in income Trends show mothers tend to have an increase in workloads, higher job instability, and moves to less desirable neighborhoods with inferior schools.

Homosexual parents May be single or have partners Most children of these relationships are children of divorce Opponents claim same sex parents harms child’s development However, research show very few differences Popular with peers Adjust well Good mental health *Does not cause them to be homosexual, too

Trends in families More mobility Migration to urban areas Smaller families Increase in Mom’s employed Less extended family households

SES & access to resources Lower SES Parents Higher SES Parents Expect children to conform to society’s expectations Parents have authority over children More likely to use physical punishment More directive and less conversational with children Concerned with developing initiative and delay of gratification Children are participants in rules and regulations Less likely to be physically punished More conversational and give less directives

Peer Relations Provides information and comparison outside of the family Receive feedback, evaluation and judgement 2 issues: aggression and withdrawal Aggression: risk for dropout and delinquency Withdrawal risk for victimization and depression A lot of time is spent negotiating, arguing and agreeing with roles and rules

Play Relives tension and anxiety Play is childs work! All psychologists agree that play is VERY important for children to develop in all aspects of growing up Play therapy – allows children to work off frustrations and help them with coping mechanisms

Types of Play Unoccupied – random movements without a set goal Solitary – playing alone happily Onlooker – watches other children play Parallel – plays with the same toys as others, but not within the same story line Associative – children more interested in each other than in the toys around them Cooperative – organized activity with social interaction

Sensorimotor – infants playing with toys that make noise or bounce Practice - repetition of behavior when learning a new skill Pretense/symbolic play – substitute one object for another during play Social – involves social interaction with peers Constructive – creation of a product or solution Games – 10-12 years, turns, pleasure, competition

Television Most influential type of mass media to children Persuasive capabilities of TV are staggering Many children spend more time in front of a TV than with their parents US children watch more TV than other nations children

Negative influences Passive learners are created Distracts from other activities Teaches stereotypes Violent models of aggression Gives unrealistic views of the world

Positive influences Educational programs Portrays the world beyond their environment Models prosocial behavior

Aggression and TV Cartoons show approximately 25 acts of violence each hour Children who watch violence vs. those who do not, show more violent behaviors when interacting with their peers Violent video games are linked to aggression in males and females

When children watch prosocial television Learn social skills Imitate positive behaviors Learn academic skills