Brown v. Bd of Ed (2) (1955) Court requires Federal district courts to oversee desegregation plans submitted by school districts Desegregation to proceed with “all deliberate speed”

Cooper v. Aaron (1958) Signed by all 9 justices Primary question is not segregation, but federal judicial power Restatement of Marbury v. Madison, the power of federal courts to review all governmental acts for constitutionality

Number of Demonstrations 1940-65

Magazine Coverage of Civil Rights

Civil Rights as Most Important National Issue (Public Opinion)

1963 2011 Whites 41% 78% African Americans 23% 39% Do African-Americans have an equal chance as whites in being hired for a job for which they are qualified? 1963 2011 Whites 41% 78% African Americans 23% 39% USA Today/Gallup Poll, 8/17/2011

Approve of Interracial Marriage 1958-2011

Primary Responsibility for Desegregation by School District

Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell (1991) In 1972, US District Court orders bussing of black students to white schools. In 1977, Court declared system had reached "unitary" racial composition. In 1984, School Board passed new plan which lessened busing in an effort to reduce travel time for black students.

Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell (1991) “From the very first, federal supervision of local school systems was intended as a temporary measure to remedy past discrimination. Brown considered the "complexities arising from the transition to a system of public education freed of racial discrimination" in holding that the implementation of desegregation was to proceed "with all deliberate speed.” C.J. Rehnquist (Opinion of the Court)

Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell (1991) Our jurisprudence requires … that the job of school desegregation be fully completed and maintained so that the stigmatic harm identified in Brown I will not recur upon lifting the decree. Any doubt on the issue … should be resolved in favor of the Afro-American children affected by this litigation. Justice Marshall (Dissenting)

Re-segregation, 1992-2003, Blacks

Latino Segregation, 1991-2003