Closing Achievement Gaps: Research-Based Lessons for Educators Joseph Murphy Vanderbilt University joseph.f.murphy@vanderbilt.edu (615) 322-8038

Part A. Portrayals of Gaps

(46) (42) (34) (25) (27) (29) (29) (29) (32) (26) Year (Gap)

(33) (40) (41) (40) (35) (34) (31) Year (Gap)

(36) (31) (27) (18) (20) (28) (31) (32) (29) (22) Year (Gap)

(29) (30) (26) (27) (26) (28) (26) Year (Gap)

(40) (38) (32) (29) (21) (26) (26) (27) (32) (28) Year (Gap)

(32) (29) (31) (33) Year (Gap)

(52) (50) (31) (21) (30) (36) (30) (29) (31) (29) Year (Gap)

(23) (29) (26) (25) (25) Year (Gap)

(.85) (.96) (.97) (.99) (1.06) (1.07) (1.11) (1.10) (1.08) (1.11) (1.14) Year (Gap)

(.76) (.78) (.80) (.86) (.85) (.82) (.89) (.74) (.97) (.75) (1.03) Year (Gap)

(.79) (.87) (.84) (.96) (.91) (.91) (.84) (.89) (.93) (.89) (.96) Year (Gap)

(.90) (.87) (1.42) (.98) (.90) (.97) (.92) (.94) (1.02) (1.02) (.78) Year (Gap)

(103) (103) (105) (105) (111) Year (Gap)

(96) (92) (96) (99) (98) Year (Gap)

(4.3) (4.4) (4.6) (4.7) (5.2) Year (Gap)

(23.0) (17.2) (14.1) (12.5) (9.8) (6.1) (7.0) (9.8) (5.8) (5.4) (6.3) (4.5) Year (Gap)

(9.0) (11.5) (8.3) (7.0) (4.5) (3.7) (4.2) (5.9) (5.7) (5.3) (4.8) (4.4) Year (Gap)

(12.2) (15.3) (13.8) (13.4) (11.6) (13.4) (13.7) (16.2) (13.4) (16.5) (15.2) (17.4) Year (Gap)

Why is it important? Individual Society

Individual: Educational Attainment Increased chance of falling behind in school Higher dropout rate Reduced enrollment in college Less likelihood of college degree

“Over a third of the low SES group and just 3 percent of the high group are ‘permanent dropouts,’ meaning high school dropouts who at approximately age 22 still lack high school certification of any type. Whereas almost 60 percent of the high SES group attended a four-year college by age 22, just 7 percent low SES youth did.” (Alexander, et al., 2007) “Horribly, NAEP data indicate that, on average, Black students are leaving high school ‘with less mathematical knowledge than white 8th graders possess.’” (Hughes, 2003)

Individual: Employment Opportunity Limited career path Concentration in low-paying positions

Individual: Wages Lower wages

The gap has shifted from being an indicator of educational inequality to a direct cause of socioeconomic inequality.

Society: Economic Reduced economic competitiveness Lower standard of living Impediment to productivity and performance Contribution to decline in economic health

If the minority-white gap had been closed between 1983 and 1998: GDP would have been $310 - $525 billion higher (2 - 4% of GDP) in 2008 dollars If the SES gap had been closed between 1983 and 1998: GDP would have been $400 - $600 billion higher (3 - 5% of GDP) in 2008 dollars

Society: Social Well-Being Reinforces social inequality and exacerbates social justice problems Reduces ties that bind society Damages political fabric of democracy

Insights and Rules for Closing Achievement Gaps: Part B. Insights and Rules for Closing Achievement Gaps: General Rules of Engagement

Four Sets of Findings Big Picture Conclusions Factors to Emphasize Timing Cautions

Big Picture Conclusions

schools do not cause achievement gaps. By and large, schools do not cause achievement gaps.

50% 75% 100% +25% +25%

4 3 2 1 Summer 4 – 5 3 2 1 Summer 3 – 4 Summer 2 – 3 Summer 1 – 2 Summer K – 1 2 1 K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 (Preschool) Period A (Age 0-5) (K – 5) Period B ( Age 6 – 11) (6 – 12) Period C (Age 12 – 18)

K 3 – 4 50% of gap 25% of gap

Summer effect school K 3 – 4 50% of gap 25% of gap

Schools cannot close achievement gaps alone.

schools have a part to play. Much of the solution is to be found in factors external to the school, but social policy schooling schools have a part to play.

especially effective in Schools have not been especially effective in helping close achievement gaps.

Deep-Seated, Long-Standing, Hard-to-Solve Problem Historically not a front-burner issue An unwillingness to see the issue in ethical terms A reluctance to re-set priorities and re-allocate resources

Since low-income and minority students are more school- dependent than their more advantaged peers, there is potential for schools to help solve the problem.

What School Dependency Means These youngsters are more advantaged in general when schools do things well These youngsters are more disadvantaged in general when schools do not do things well

Factors

A focus on both out-of-school and in-school factors is required.

Schools did not cause the gaps. They cannot solve gap problems alone.

A combination of factors is required to close achievement gaps.

Silver Bullet

Greater curricular rigor Better instruction Stronger culture (academic press) Lower class size More personalization Greater curricular rigor

“different” types of interventions. They require Students do not need “different” types of interventions. They require more intensive support.

Academic and Environmental Factors Need to be Addressed in Tandem Instructional program Culture “Ultimately, programs that rely entirely on increasing academic standards without parallel attention to social-emotional factors associated with achievement motivation and performance will be less likely to improve student achievement outcomes.” (Becker and Luther, 2002)

We need to concentrate on those factors that disproportionately advantage low-income and minority students.

Preschool programs Cooperative instructional strategies Smaller class sizes Quality instruction Co-curricular/extra curricular activities More rigorous courses Placement in high SES schools (school composition) Minority teachers/working class teachers Parent help with homework Protective, supportive, risk-free environment Service learning High teacher expectations

Smaller Class Size Kruger & Whitmore Rothstein, 2004 Ferguson, 1998 Finn, 1998 Finn & Achilles, 1990 Grissmar, 1998 Kruger & Whitmore Rothstein, 2004 Slavin & Madden, 2006 More beneficial for minority than non-minority students Largest for disadvantaged students Greater for students attending inner-city schools

Quality Instruction “The impact of the teacher is far greater for minority students…Good teachers can have a differentially positive effect on minority students.” (Singham, 2003)

Curricular Rigor Minority and low-income students seem to benefit more than others from stronger course requirements. (Thompson, 2002) Content standards have a positive effect on average achievement; the gains [are] especially large more minority students. (Harris & Hertert, 2006) The gains from taking a more demanding mathematics curriculum are even greater for African American and Latino students than for white students. (Thompson & O’Quinn, 2001)

Service Learning “Service learning may be especially attractive to principals of low SES schools, in part because it may be related to higher achievement generally and to smaller achievement gaps between higher and lower income students.” (Scales, et al., 2006) “[C]ommunity service appears to be related to a smaller achievement gap between students from lower and higher income backgrounds. Moreover, experiencing service-learning for at least a few weeks appears to be related to a smaller gap in most academic outcomes between low and high-SES students.” (Scales, et al., 2006)

Some factors carry more weight than others.

All factors are not equal in closing the gap All factors are not equal in closing the gap. Some have more power to reduce discrepancies. Opportunity to learn Quality instruction

An integrated, coherent, cohesive, overlapping design works best.

after school tutoring program service learning ninth grade academy summer support, grades 8 and 9 co-curricular involvement master teachers acceleration + remediation design extra services…double sessions faculty advisors extended schooling

Issues

There is no short-term solution.

Early interventions trump later interventions.

The place to solve the “9th grade problem” is in preschool.

ball ball hill hill 8th grade vs. 12th grade

Later: Problems are harder Problems are more entrenched Problems are less malleable Problems have infected multiple domains (e.g., reading problem  motivation  engagement); an early problem of 1 or 2 things becomes a later problem of 5 or 6 things

Some factors carry more weight in certain periods of the school career. High teacher expectations are more powerful in PreK-4 High personalization is more powerful in grades 8-12

Length of time in treatment is important.

Quality Instruction (concept portrait)

Prevention trumps remediation.

Acceleration + remediation trumps remediation.

lesson #1 lesson #2 instruction  learning instruction problem arises instruction  learning instruction

do not withdraw supports. One rarely arrives -- do not withdraw supports.

Cautions

Use of Categories Lumping minorities together Aggregating diverse groups within categories Ignoring individual differences

Lumping groups into “minority” status is problematic.

Sub-Group Scores Mask Differences Many groups in Hispanic and Asian designations

We need to remember that we are talking about averages.

Factors are not uniformly effective for all forms of the gap.

There is a need to surface potential unintended consequences.

strategy: move most effective teachers to “tested” grades move: enhance accountability via testing strategy: move most effective teachers to “tested” grades consequences: ??? move: enhance academic rigor strategy: detrack consequence: ??? move: create culturally responsive culture strategy: establish AA center/club

Costs as well as benefits of gap reduction strategies need to be weighed. Ninth grade academy? Salary supplement for teachers working in schools with high concentrations of low-income students? Additional AP courses?

Do not lose sight of the real goal (forest) when focusing on the gaps (trees).

addressing underachievement. The core issue is addressing underachievement.

Three Dimensions of Achievement Level Equity Value added

gap .6 1.2 1.4 VALUE ADDED

gap .2 .4 .3 LEVEL

Absolute vs. Relative Gain

Absolute 3.0 3.5 +.5 Relative • Rate of change: black 60% white 44% • Black achievement as % of white achievement 63% 70%

Do not count on luck, prayer, magic, or martyrs to solve the problem.

Barrier-Removal Actions Focus Enhancement Actions Barrier-Removal Actions Help All Equally Help Low-SES More All Students [1] Align curriculum Deepen PD for Teachers [2] Provide academic summer school Use cooperative learning strategies Raise teacher expectations Add time to school day [3] [4] Detrack Re-culture discriminatory discipline culture Remove transportation barriers for more co-curricular opportunities Reduce class size Targeted Students [5] [6] Provide supplemental tutoring Target additional instructional time Form cultural similar clubs (AA) [7] [8] Remove barriers that prevent parents from participating with school

Part C. Lessons for Closing Achievement Gaps

The Instructional Program (1-5) Culture (6-7) Structure & Support (8-10)

THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM 1. Ensure youngsters on the wrong side of the achievement gap have excellent teachers Storyline Teacher-student interactions are consequential for student learning most consequential variable 40% of student achievement Quality of teachers is connected to achievement gaps, especially closing gaps

Action Bring effective teachers to low-performing schools Put best teachers with low-income and minority students Effectiveness High Teacher test scores (verbal) Medium Race of teacher Diversity of teachers across the staff Class background Subject matter knowledge in area(s) taught

Low Teacher performance evaluation scores Master’s degree in general Credentials Experience in general

2. Provide additional instructional support to those in need Storyline Deficits build up for low-income and African American students 0-5 and 6-9 Schools need to backfill for problems as well as educate well in real time Action Add instructional time, instructional resources, and intensive supports Preschool Summer programs Before school/after school One-on-one tutoring

Effectiveness High quality Flow primarily to students on the wrong side of the achievement gap Supplement, not supplant Be part of a comprehensive system of supports

3. Feature Balanced Instruction Emphasizing Basic Skills, Teaching for Understanding, and Culturally Responsive Pedagogy Storyline The quality of instruction is the main issue – instruction matters more than standards Quality instruction can narrow achievement gaps Effective Actions More equitable grouping strategies Strong teacher-student relations Emphasis on cooperative learning strategies Pedagogy that underscores social connectedness Community-oriented learning contexts

High expectations Setting and maintaining high standards Refusal to accept excuses for limited effort and poor quality work Nonjudgmental responsiveness Fierce persistence Individual and collective responsibility for student performance

Culturally responsive teaching Uses cultural knowledge, prior experience, and the frames of reference of ethnically diverse students to make learning more relevant Uses child’s background as a foundation for teaching Builds on strengths and knowledge students bring to school Highlights culturally-anchored materials

Focus on both direct instruction and teaching for higher-order skills Explicit teaching Cognitively demanding instructional strategies Targeted teaching behaviors Questions with high answer success rate Additional wait time Diversified assessment designs A minimum of classroom administrative routines

4. Ensure That All Low-Income and African American Students Complete a Rigorous Curriculum Storyline Rigor Curriculum rigor is closely linked to learning Low track/ability group placement maintains/exacerbates achievement gaps developed 0-9 Challenging curriculum has the power to reduce achievement gaps: Minority and low-income students benefit more than others from stronger course requirements Alignment Part of larger picture of alignment – standards, instruction, and assessment

Supporting Pillars Two pillars buttress curricular rigor Social/emotional support – personal encouragement, warm, demanding, caring, and supportive classroom environment Extended time During the school day Extended school day/year Action Eliminate non-academically challenging courses Get students into more challenging courses

How schools use data has a good deal to do with closing gaps 5. Develop a Cohesive System for Collecting, Analyzing, and Using Data to Understand, Address, and Close Achievement Gaps Storyline How schools use data has a good deal to do with closing gaps Gap-closing schools are adept at analyzing and using data Actions Develop systems for a data-driven instructional program Systematic methods for gathering and employing data Multiple data-gathering strategies Frequent and ongoing work

Create an infrastructure to support the consistent use of data Time for data work Policies/structure for work Leadership Collaborative work

CULTURE 6. Develop a Culture of High Academic Press and High Personalization Storyline Culture marked by high academic press and high personalization is key to ensuring greater equity in learning Harmony between the two is critical – caring in combination with high expectations Elements of Highly Personalized Culture Caring – each student is known and cared for Trust – students trust the school and the staff

Opportunities for meaningful involvement in leadership activities Affiliation – opportunities to be part of communities, for cooperative work, and for developing continuing relationships Support – nurturing and supportive relationships between educators and students Cultural compatibility – an environment that is reflective of the culture of youngsters’ homes and communities Action Rich array of co-curricular activities, with concerted effort to nurture involvement Opportunities for meaningful involvement in leadership activities Culturally anchored clubs Racially balanced staff

Professional development on high personalization Open examination of race and class Safe and orderly learning environment Smaller classes Comprehensive services Guidance for students – advisors, mentors, tutors Celebrations of accomplishments of students

7. Mix Students by Race and Class Storyline: General A student’s school peers are a key factor in explaining academic achievement – for any given student, school culture is shaped by the peers with whom s/he interacts Schools can permit peer efforts to damage the achievement of students or they can influence peer interactions in ways that help ensure a more equitable distribution of learning Storyline: Specific Students are often clustered together in classrooms in terms of race and class

Race and social class segregation matters who sits next to whom makes a difference in student learning (grades, achievement scores, educational aspirations, occupational aspirations)

Reversing segregation matters the benefits of integration are clear, especially for the most disadvantaged students desegregation is an important tool for closing achievement gaps schools need to manage peer influence effects actively Explaining the Storyline Allocation of school resources

Allocation of expectations and demands for excellence Peer effects and peer culture concentration can help produce a culture in which negative attitudes, poor behavior, low motivation, limited effort, and poor self concept blanket students restricted access to high aspirations for school success and post-school opportunities – the reverse of the middle-class peer effect

Action Mix students by race and class – be proactive in getting students on the wrong side of the achievement gap into meaningful contact with peers with pro-achievement norms, strong academic performance, and high aspirations for school and post-school success

STRUCTURE AND SUPPORT 8. Build Linkages Between Home and School that Focus on Student Learning Storyline Parent involvement has a direct and strong impact on student achievement Close cooperation between schools, parents, and the community is one of the keys to closing achievement gaps

Parental Involvement at the School Deliberate recruiting strategies Action Parental Involvement at the School Deliberate recruiting strategies Make school a comforting, welcoming place Remove barriers that hinder involvement Educate staff on how to help parents in their home education role Employ multiple strategies for involvement Provide parent education programs

Parent Support of the Education of Children at Home Discussing children’s schoolwork and experiences at school (taking a real interest) Structuring home activities Providing help with homework Encouraging attendance Promoting high expectations for school success at home Creating a home environment that encourages learning (e.g., quiet, specific place to work) Linking children with enhanced learning opportunities outside the home and school

9. Provide High-Quality Professional Development to Help Teachers Close Achievement Gaps Storyline There is a link between professional development and student achievement Professional development for teachers of poor and minority children often leaves much to be desired Cajoling and bullying teachers in the absence of capacity building in the area of skills and knowledge needed to close gaps will fail Appropriate capacity building can help narrow gaps

Quality Elements Valued by teachers and formal school leaders Part of a thoughtful plan that is long-term in nature and employs frequent learning sessions Schoolwide Carefully linked to other aspects of the school Sufficient time for learning High levels of administrative support and involvement Intensive support over time Grows from student-driven data and school results

Center of gravity is real challenges in the classroom/school Practice anchored/job embedded Context sensitive Center of gravity is real challenges in the classroom/school Direct and obvious application Often part of collaborative arrangements, e.g., networks Focus on growth rather than deficits Trusting context Reflective work Focus [all the content emphasized to this point – instruction, curriculum, assessment, and so forth]

10. Reduce Class Size in the Early Primary Grades and Reduce School Size Storyline The effect of assignment to a small class on the racial test score gap is sizeable The negative effects of poverty on student achievement are considerably stronger in larger schools and districts than in smaller ones; that is, smaller schools and districts are considerably more successful in disrupting or mitigating the relationship between poverty and student achievement

Small classes and schools help minority and low-income students the most Timing of reductions is important Size of reduction is important Length of treatment is important

What Powers Size Effects Changes in instruction made possible by class size reductions More effective classroom management More individualized attention Greater and more appropriate differentiation of instruction Less space for children not to engage Better linkages to parents