Fig. 1 Solar cycle and experimental setup.

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Fig. 1 Solar cycle and experimental setup. Solar cycle and experimental setup. (A) Top: Sunspot number versus time. The period under investigation in this study is shaded green, and the thick line is the averaged curve. Bottom: Global view of the initial development of the aurora during the Bastille Day storm observed by the IMAGE spacecraft’s Wideband Imaging Camera [from (4)]. The time in the lower right-hand corner of each image is in universal time. The arrow above the three images points at the date in the solar cycle when this storm occurred. (B) Auroral current circuit with key regions and spacecraft location [modified from (60)]. (C) Hypothetical orbital ellipsoid of the Polar satellite crossing different plasma regions of Earth’s magnetosphere during 1 year. The colored regions (yellow and red) illustrate regions through which Alfvén waves travel toward or away from the ionosphere in one particular instance. The hole in the ellipsoid reveals Earth with the aurora borealis. Green lines with arrows represent magnetic field lines. Andreas Keiling et al. Sci Adv 2019;5:eaav8411 Copyright © 2019 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works. Distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution NonCommercial License 4.0 (CC BY-NC).