RES 500 Academic Writing and Research Skills Week 10 Observation Studies, Experiments, Surveys, Measurement and measurement scale

Observations We call a set of data derived from an object (experimental unit) an observation. Each object is measured according to various aspects, such as temperature, concentration of some constituents, frequency of occurrence of some phenomenon, etc. Each of these aspects is denoted as a variable or feature. By assembling all available data on all objects we can build a matrix - a table where the columns represent the variables and the rows represent the measured observations.

The Uses of Observation Observation and the Research Process

The Uses of Observation Selecting Data Collection Method

Non-Behavioral Observation Record Analysis Physical Condition Analysis Physical Process Analysis

Behavioral Observation Nonverbal Analysis Linguistic Analysis Extra-linguistic Analysis Spatial Analysis

Classification of Observation We can classify observation in terms of the observer participant relationship. This relationship may be viewed from three perspectives: (1) Is the observation direct or indirect? (2) Is the observer’s presence known or unknown? (3) Is the observer a participant or nonparticipant?

Limitation of Observation Observation may be limited by: The difficulty of waiting for long periods to capture the relevant phenomena. The expense of observer costs and equipment. The reliability of inferences from surface indicators. The problems of quantification and disproportionately large records. The limitation on presenting activities and inferences about cognitive processes.

Experiments Experiments are studies involving intervention by the researcher beyond that required for measurement. The usual intervention is to manipulate some variable in a setting and observe how it affects the subjects being studied (e.g., people or physical entities). The researcher manipulates the independent or explanatory variable and then observes whether the hypothesized dependent variable is affected by the intervention.

Evaluation of Experiments Advantages Disadvantages

Conducting of Experiments Select relevant variables. Specify the treatment levels. Control the experimental environment. Choose the experimental design. Select and assign the subjects. Pilot test, revise, and test. Analyze the data.

Validity in Experiments Internal Validity Among the many threats to internal validity, we consider the following seven: History Maturation Testing Instrumentation Selection Statistical regression Experimental mortality

Validity in Experiments External Validity Reactivity of testing on X . Interaction of selection and X . Other reactive factors.

Experimental Research Designs Preexperimental Designs True Experimental Designs Field Experiments: Quasi- or Semi-Experiments

Surveys A survey is an investigation about the characteristics of a given population by means of collecting data from a sample of that population and estimating their characteristics through the systematic use of statistical methodology. The communication approach involves surveying or interviewing people and recording their responses for analysis

Some attitudes are expected . “There once was a demographic survey done to determine if money was connected to happiness, and Ireland was the only place where this did not turn out to be true.” Fiona Shaw Irish actress and theater director

Communication Approach d Strengths Versatility Efficiency Geographic coverage Weaknesses Error Inaccessible populations

Communication Approaches Self- Administered Survey Telephone Survey Survey via Personal Interview

Self-Administered Surveys Disk-by-Mail Intercept Modes Drop-off Mail CASI Fax 10-19

Designing Questionnaires Using the TDM Easy to read Offer clear directions Include personalization Notify in advance Encourage response

Telephone Survey Traditional CATI systems Computer- administered

Designing Questionnaires Using the TDM Lower Cost vs. Personal Interview Wide geographic coverage Fewer Interviewers Reduced interviewer bias Fast completion time Random dialing CATI

Measurement Select measurable phenomena Develop a set of mapping rules Apply the mapping rule to each phenomenon

Levels of Measurement Nominal Ordinal Classification interval Ratio

Levels of Measurement Nominal Classification Ordinal Classification Order interval Classification Distance Order Ratio Classification Distance Order Natural Origin

References Business Research Methods by Donald R Cooper, 12th Edition. Chapter 8 - Observation Studies, PP 170-189 Chapter 9 - Experiments, PP 190-213 Chapter 10 - Surveys Studies, PP 214-242 Chapter 11 - Measurement, PP 243-265 Chapter 12 - Measurement Scale, PP 266-293