REASON – ARGUMENTATION AND LOGIC TOK LAJM

TASK Choose some thing that is important to you E.g. a hobby, an athlete, an artist or a band Try give reasons to your neighbour(s) why the thing you chose is good Write down your reasons

TASK What were you actually trying to do in the previous task? You were trying to give an argument!

What is an argument? All arguments must have a main point and reason(s) that support it

What is an argument? (P1) Elvis had a distinctive voice PREMISE(S) (P1–Pn) – reasons of an argument that support the main point (P1) Elvis had a distinctive voice REASONING (P2) Elvis gave huge concerts (C) Elvis was a great artist CONCLUSION (C) – the main point of an argument

TASK Transform your argument into the following form: Premises (P1–Pn) Conclusion (C) Write down your argument accurately Evaluate your reasoning

What makes up a good argument? (1) All the premises are true (2) Premises support the conclusion i.e. reasoning is not flawed PLEASE NOTE! Premises can be true or false, but an argument cannot be true or false Argument can be good or bad

Truth and validity Truth Validity What is the case? Property of the premises Validity Does the conclusion follow from the premises? Property of the reasoning process The validity of an argument is independent of the truth or falsity of the premises it contains

Deductive reasoning The truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion The conclusion must necessarily follow from the premises Logically valid

Deductive reasoning (P1) All men are mortal (P2) Elvis is a man (C) Elvis is a mortal

TASK Evaluate the deductive arguments in the teacher’s handout Are the deductive arguments logically valid or not and why?

Two forms of logically VALID deductive reasonings MODUS PONENS B (P1) If A, then B (P2) A (C) B A X CORRECT!

Two forms of logically VALID deductive reasonings MODUS TOLLENS B (P1) If A, then B (P2) Not B (C) Not A A CORRECT! X

Two forms of logically INVALID deductive reasonings DENYING THE ANTECEDENT B (P1) If A, then B (P2) Not A (C) Not B X A ERROR!

Two forms of logically INVALID deductive reasonings AFFIRMING THE CONSEQUENT B (P1) If A, then B (P2) B (C) A X A ERROR!

TASK Watch the following video clip: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zrzMhU_4m-g Does the reasoning in the video follow valid deductive reasoning?

Inductive reasoning The truth of the premises makes the conclusion probable The conclusion doesn’t necessarily follow from the premises Statistical generalizations

Inductive reasoning (P1) I’ve seen thousands of ravens (P2) All the ravens I’ve seen have been black (C) All the ravens are black

TASK How to make good inductive arguments? Number of instances What distinguishes good generalizations from bad ones? Number of instances Variety of circumstances Exceptions, counter-examples Coherence Subject area, AOK

Deduction, induction and science

Argument of best explanation Abductive reasoning Reasoning from the available sources to the best possible explanation Argument of best explanation

Abductive reasoning (P1) A man was found dead in a remote cabin (P2) All the doors and the windows were shut from inside (P3) The man was hanging from a rope (C) The man had committed a suicide

Key principles in abduction Simplicity Consistency Testability Coverage

Abduction and science Example: theory of evolution Evidence: fossils, morphological similarity, biogeography, molecular similarity, withered structures etc. Abductive inference based on the evidence: organisms have developed from previous organisms through genetic mutation and natural selection

Induction and abduction Induction and abduction can overlap In searching for the best possible explanation, statistical generalizations can be used In both cases the premises do NOT guarantee the truth of the conclusion The premises just make the conclusion more likely or warranted

TASK How can you develop your reasoning skills? Develop strategies

Fallacy An invalid pattern of argument, an error in reasoning May occur in any type of reasoning

TASK How can our reasoning be flawed? Familiarise yourselves with the most common fallacies with the links provided by the teacher Try to find everyday examples

Rhetoric Technique of using eloquent language to persuade others

Find out what logos, ethos and pathos mean TASK Watch the following TED-Ed video about rhetoric skills https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3klMM9BkW5o&frags=pl%2Cwn Find out what logos, ethos and pathos mean

Debate In debate two opposing views challenge each other in argumentation Critical thinking and science progresses through debate

TASK Six volunteers are needed Volunteers form two debate teams The claim for the debaters is revealed in the next slide Defending and opposing sides will be decided by lot

TASK The whole point of knowledge is to produce meaning and purpose in our personal lives Defending team agrees Opposing team disagrees Debate teams will have five minutes to prepare themselves Debate will last five minutes When the debate is over, audience will vote the winner

TASK Watch the following video clip: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ohDB5gbtaEQ Do the debaters engage in good argumentation?

Dialogue Essential dialogue skills: ”Flow of meaning and understanding through conversationalists” Open-ended and equal conversation Essential dialogue skills: Ability to process one’s emotions Ability to listen Ability to express oneself constructively Ability to see the bigger picture

Dialogue Debate can be thought as a form of dialogue BASIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIALOGUE AND DEBATE Dialogue (collaborative) Debate (oppositional) Goal is understanding Goal is proving the other side wrong Listening for deeper meaning Listening for flaws Re-evaluating assumptions Defending assumptions Open-minded Close-minded Temporarily suspending belief All-out defending of belief Searching for strengths in all positions Searching for weakness in opposition Open-ended Demands closure Debate can be thought as a form of dialogue

TASK Again, six volunteers are needed Volunteers form one group of conversationalists and engage in five minute dialogue The whole point of knowledge is to produce meaning and purpose in our personal lives How was the dialogue different from the debate?

A critical thinker Is aware of different ways of argumentation and various fallacies Uses source criticism Pursues intellectual integrity

CARS checklist

TASK How does reason relate to the other ways of knowing? What is the role of reason in the areas of knowledge?

TASK Is there a way of knowing, area of knowledge or area of life where reason cannot be applied?

TASK What kind of knowledge questions can you create based on what you have learned from reason? Start addressing your KQs with acquired argumentation skills

Picture Sources Usain Bolt in Rio 2016 <http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-08-17/cameron-spencer-takes-smiling-usain-bolt-photo-rio-olympics/7751724> Accessed 24th of August 2016. Cartoon argument 1 <https://rosariobrumley.wordpress.com/2012/05/08/what-it-means-to-shape-an-argument/> Accessed 24th of August 2016. Cartoon argument 2 <http://www.edu.helsinki.fi/malu/kirjasto/yto/vaittely/> Accessed 5th of April 2016 Argument as a house <http://quotesgram.com/quotes-about-logical-thinking> Accessed 5th of April 2016

Picture Sources Weapons of Mass Deduction <https://www.pinterest.com/pin/120682464991674637/> Accessed 19th of June 2016. Elvis <http://www.clker.com/clipart-elvis-presley-.html> Accessed 24th of August 2016. Sherlock Holmes <http://allegator.deviantart.com/art/New-Sherlock-Holmes-278127565> Accessed 19th of June 2016. Logic diagram <https://www.plato-philosophy.org/teachertoolkit/arguments-philosophical-reasoning/> Accessed 9th of September 2018. Raven <https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Common_Raven/id> Accessed 24th of August 2016. Albino raven <https://fi.pinterest.com/museignited/crow-raven-totem-spirit-animal/> Accessed 24th of August 2016.

Picture Sources Sherlock Holmes and doctor Watson <http://pdlstacks.blogspot.fi/2014_06_01_archive.html> Accessed 5th of August 2016. Sherlock Holmes’ silhouette <https://pixabay.com/fi/sherlock-holmes-etsivä-suurennuslasi-147255/> Accessed 5th of August 2016. Sherlock Holmes playing the violin <http://everythingsherlock.com/sherlock-holmes-violin/> Accessed 5th of August 2016. Charles Darwin <https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/centre-has-no-proposal-to-remove-darwins-theory-from-school-college-curricula/article22691658.ece> Accessed 10th of September 2018. Two wheelheads <https://saultonline.com/2016/01/can-you-pass-a-tricky-logical-reasoning-quiz/> Accessed 10th of September 2018. Logical fallacy meme <http://www.skepticalraptor.com/skepticalraptorblog.php/logical-fallacies/> Accessed 25th of August 2016. Don’t raise your voice, improve your argument <https://www.askideas.com/dont-raise-your-voice-improve-your-argument-desmond-tutu/> Accessed 15th of April 2016. Rhetoric <http://www.presentationmagazine.com/using-a-speech-to-rally-the-team-3404.htm> Accessed 20th of April 2016. Two debaters 1 <http://themedinamite.com/tag/debate/> Accessed 23rd of March 2017. Argument clinic <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_Clinic> Accessed 15th of November 2015. Two debaters 2 <http://www.howtolanguages.com/langgen/vocabulary-no-grammar-the-great-language-debate/> Accessed 23rd of April 2017.

Picture Sources Demand evidence and think critically <https://fi.pinterest.com/explore/critical-thinking/> Accessed 25th of August 2016. Questions a critical thinker asks <http://www.educatorstechnology.com/2014/12/critical-thinking-questions-students.html> Accessed 18th of August 2016. 6 critical questions <http://www.educatorstechnology.com/2014/12/critical-thinking-questions-students.html> Accessed 18th of August 2016. CARS Checlist van de Lagemaat, Richard: Theory of Knowledge for the IB Diploma, Second edition, Cambridge University Press 2015, page 69 TOK curriculum <http://www.amyscott.com/ToK.html> Accessed 2nd of August 2016. Be rational – get real <http://rationallyspeaking.blogspot.fi/2011/11/difference-between-rationality-and.html> Accessed 29th of August 2016. Knowledge questions <https://tok-a-journey.wikispaces.com/Knowledge+Questions> Accessed 25th of September 2017.