Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach Chapter 8

The Passenger Pigeon: Gone Forever Once most common bird in N. America- Extinct in 1914 Humans were responsible (huge flocks, narrow colonies = easy to kill- stool pigeons) Why they were hunted (food, feathers, fertilizer) Extinction

Types of Species Extinction Local extinction- like it sounds Ecological extinction - too few to play ecological role Biological extinction - all gone everywhere

Some Prematurely Extinct Species Passenger pigeon Great auk Dodo Dusky seaside sparrow Aepyornis (Madagascar) Fig. 9-2, p. 185

Endangered and Threatened Species Endangered species could soon become extinct over some or all of its range Threatened species still abundant, but likely to become endangered Fig. 9-3a-b, p. 186

More Endangered and Threatened Species Florida manatee Northern spotted owl (threatened) Gray wolf Florida panther Bannerman's turaco (Africa) Devil's hole pupfish Snow leopard (Central Asia) Symphonia (Madagascar) Black-footed ferret Utah prairie dog (threatened) Ghost bat (Australia) Black rhinoceros (Africa) California condor Black lace cactus Oahu tree snail Fig. 9-3c, p. 187

Characteristics of Extinction-Prone Species Examples Low reproductive rate (K-strategist) Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros Specialized niche Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite Narrow distribution Many island species, elephant seal, desert pupfish Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear Feeds at high trophic level Fixed migratory patterns Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtles “The first animal species to go are the big, the slow, the tasty and those with valuable parts such as tusks and skins.” E.O.Wilson Rare Many island species, African violet, some orchids Commercially valuable Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther Large territories

Percentages of Various Types of Organisms Threatened with Extinction by Human Activities 34% (51% of freshwater species) Fish Mammals 24% Reptiles 20% Plants 14% Birds 12% Fig. 9-5, p. 188

Problems Estimating Extinction Rates Extinction not easily documented over time Many species remain unidentified Little is known about most identified species

Estimating Extinction Rates Estimates from records and fossils Species-area relationship: on average, a 90% habitat loss causes the extinction of 50% of the species living in that habitat Models to estimate risks of extinction for a particular species Estimates of extinction rates can vary depending on available data and what assumptions are used

Human Impacts on Extinction Rates Humans have greatly accelerated extinction rates (1,000 - 10,000x) remember HIPPCO ! Conservative estimates of 0.1% to 1% per year. Extinction rates higher in biodiversity “hot spots” Speciation crisis (humans limiting long-term recovery of biodiversity via impacts on ecosystems, colonization sites for emergence of new species) Inadequate estimations of extinction rates Precautionary strategy – “look before you leap”

Importance of Wild Species May take nature 5 million years to replace the species that may be lost in the 21st century Instrumental value- ecological services, food, fuel, lumber, paper, medicine Genetic information- better ability to adapt to changing enviro. conditions Recreational pleasure and ecotourism- lion living in Kenya generates > $.5 million over 7 years elephant worth about $1 million over 60 yrs Intrinsic or existence value - Do species have an inherent right to exist? Even small organisms can be important

Global Environment Outlook - CNN Video

Nature’s Pharmacy 9 of 10 leading Rx drugs originated from wild species < 1% of flowering plants in tropical forests studied for medicinal properties Fig. 9-6, p. 189

Causes of Premature Extinction “HIPPCO” Habitat destruction and fragmentation Invasive (alien) species Population growth (humans) Pollution Climate Change Overharvesting

Extinction Threats from Habitat Loss and Degradation Importance of habitats Deforestation- particularly tropical forests Destruction of wetlands and coral reefs Endemic species- found nowhere else on earth “Habitat islands”- surrounded by different habitat (national parks, lakes, mt. tops) Habitat fragmentation - continuous area divided into small, scattered patches “Message” from the birds - 70% are declining, 1/6 threatened with extinction Birds are indicator species

Threatened Species of U.S. Songbirds Cerulean warbler Sprague’s pipit Bichnell’s thrush Blacked-capped vireo Golden-cheeked warbler Florida scrub jay California gnatcatcher Kirtland’s warbler Henslow’s sparrow Bachman’s warbler Fig. 9-10, p. 192 70% of world’s bird species are declining in numbers

Asian or Indian Elephant Reduced Ranges Asian or Indian Elephant Indian Tiger Former range Range 100 years ago Range today (34,000–54,000 left) Range today (about 2,300 left) Fig. 9-8d, p. 191

Introduced Species Some introduced species beneficial: corn, wheat, rice, cattle, poultry are critical to U.S. food supply Many introduced species lack natural predators, competitors, parasites, or pathogens that help control numbers in original habitats Invasive species: Outcompete native species, trigger ecological problems, human health problems, economic loss

Deliberately Introduced Species Purple looselife European starling African honeybee (“Killer bee”) Nutria Salt cedar (Tamarisk) Marine toad Water hyacinth Japanese beetle Hydrilla European wild boar (Feral pig) Fig. 9-11a, p. 193

Accidentally Introduced Species Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout) Argentina fire ant Brown tree snake Eurasian muffle Common pigeon (Rock dove) Formosan termite Zebra mussel Asian long-horned beetle Asian tiger mosquito Gypsy moth larvae Fig. 9-11b, p. 193

Kudzu “The vine that ate the south” - grows up to a foot a day- engulfs everything in path, contributes to smog (emits NO): But, controls erosion edible, fiber for paper, medicinal (reduces desire for alcohol) Fig. 9-12, p. 194

Fire Ant Invasion Can wipe out 90% native ant population 2009 parasitic fly discovered as control: lay eggs in ant, maggots eat away ant brain causing their heads to fall off

Reducing Threats from Nonnative Species Cost U.S. Taxpayers $137 billion /yr Threaten 1/2 critical species in US (95% in Hawaii) Prevention is best Identify the characteristics of nonnative species Identify vulnerable ecosystems Thoroughly inspect imports Establish appropriate international laws Discharge of ballast waters from ships

Ecosystems Vulnerable Characteristics of Successful Invader Species and Vulnerable Ecosystems Characteristics of Successful Invader Species Characteristics of Ecosystems Vulnerable to Invader Species High reproductive rate, short generation time (r-selected species) Pioneer species Long lived High dispersal rate Release growth- inhibiting chemicals into soil Generalists High genetic variability Similar climate to habitat of invader Absence of predators on invading species Early successional systems Low diversity of native species Absence of fire Disturbed by human activities Fig. 9-14, p. 195

Extinction Threats from Poaching Profits of poaching Mt. gorilla = $150K; panda pelt = $100K; chimp = $50K; rhino horn = $28k /Kg (most live animals die in transit) Causes of poaching: food, fur, pets, traditional medicines, trophies, eliminating pests, etc. Bushmeat Illegal pets and decorative plants orchids can fetch up to $5K; saguaro cactus $15K > 60 bird species are endangered or threatened due to wild bird trade keeping a bird indoors for more than 10 yrs doubles chances of getting lung cancer Irony of collecting exotics Attempts to control poaching

Bushmeat Fig. 9-15, p. 196

Extinction Threats from Climate Change and Pollution Climate change could contribute to extinction of 25-50% of all land animals and plants by end of century Pesticide threats- decline in honeybees, birds & fish DDT = popular pesticide in 1950’s & 60s biomagnification (bioaccumulation) impacts predatory birds (osprey, pelicans, bald eagles, falcons, hawks) by making egg shells fragile

Where Have All the Honeybees Gone? Almost 1/3 of U.S. food supply comes from insect pollinated plants- honeybees responsible for 80% of food pollination Honeybee populations are in serious decline: In 2010 34% of all commercial bees in U.S. were lost Possible Culprits: pesticide exposure, virus, mites, fungal infection, poor nutrition (due to loss of forage plants), microwave radiation from cell phones & cell towers, invasion by killer bees, Pear orchards in China are now largely pollinated by hand $$$$

Biomagnification of DDT DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys) 25 ppm Fat soluble chemicals increase in concentration at higher levels of food web DDT in large fish (needle fish) 2 ppm DDT in small fish (minnows) 0.5 ppm DDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppm DDT in water 0.000003 ppm, or 3 ppt Fig. 9-16, p. 197

Protecting Wild Species International Treaties Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) • signed by 175 countries- lists 900 endangered species that cannot be commercially traded • restricts international trade of 29,000 threatened species • limited impact due to spotty enforcement, ability for countries to except themselves Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) • legally binds governments to reverse decline of biodiversity • ratified by 191 countries (not USA)- No severe penalties

Protecting Wild Species - U.S. Federal Laws Important on APES Exam Lacey Act (1900) - prohibits transporting live or dead wild animals or parts across state borders w/out federal permit. Endangered Species Act (ESA- 1973)- one of world’s toughest & controversial enviro laws • goal is to identify & protect endangered species in USA & abroad • NMFS / USFWS responsible for identifying and listing endangered & threatened species • illegal for Americans to buy any product made from protected species - • species cannot be killed, collected or injured in US • $100k fines and 1 year prison terms for offenses • protection extended to threatened & endangered foreign species • In 2011 there were1,371 protected species (many critical species not yet listed) Establishing critical habitats- ESA requries protection of critical habitat for recovery of listed species. Due to lack of funds, only 33% of listed species have critical habitat established Since 2001, gov has stopped listing new species & designating critical habitats unless mandated by court order

Endangered Species Act (continued) Habitat conservation plans- • 1982 amendment to ESA allows landowners, developers or loggers to destroy critical habitat if they take steps to protect members of species (set asides, paying to relocate, or buying suitable habitat elsewhere • criticized as loophole - many plans approved without scientific evaluation ESA and commercial shipping- all commercial wildlife shipments must leave or enter US via one of nine designated ports • 60 USFWS inspectors examine only 25% of 90,000 yearly shipments • violators often not prosecuted and pay only small fine

Confiscated Products From Endangered Species Fig. 9-18, p. 199 Due to sparse $$ and inspectors, < 10% of illegal wildlife trade in US is discovered

Biodiversity Hot Spots in the US Top Six Hot Spots 1 Hawaii 2 San Francisco Bay area 3 Southern Appalachians 4 Death Valley 5 Southern California 6 Florida Panhandle 2 4 3 5 6 Concentration of rare species 1 Low Moderate High Fig. 9-17, p. 199

Protecting Marine Species Role of the Endangered Species Act Threats from litter- plastic threatens millions of marine species “Pacific Garbage Dump” - Nightline Video - click here Pacific Gryre Video - “Great Pacific Garbage Patch”- click here Great Pacific Garbage Patch- click Threatened sea mammals- whales, seals, sea lions Threatened sea turtles- • World’s 8 major sea turtle species are endangered or threatened- • Poaching and threats from fishing nets Need more knowledge of marine biodiversity Difficulty enforcing international treaties

Endangered Sea Turtles World’s 8 major sea turtle species are endangered or threatened- Fig. 9-20, p. 200

What Can We Do to Protect Species? What Can You Do? Protecting Species Do not buy furs, ivory products, and other materials made from endangered or threatened animal species. Do not buy wood and paper products produced by cutting remaining old-growth forests in the tropics. Do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish, and other animals that are taken from the wild. Do not buy orchids, cacti, and other plants that are taken from the wild. Fig. 9-21, p. 204