Organization

Corax of Syracuse (fl. 460 B.C.E.)

Corax of Syracuse’s Four Parts of an Argument Four Parts of a Judicial ARGUMENT 1. Introduction or Proem 2. Narration 3. Argument Confirmation Refutation 4. Summary and Peroration Proem—prelude or preliminary comment Peroration—the concluding part of a discourse or speech

Aristotle’s Four Parts of an Argument Aristotle adopts and expands Corax of Syracuse’s structure of an ARGUMENT 1. Introduction: “paving the way, as it were, for what is to follow” Dispel Objections: dispel objections, deny the alleged fact, appeal to no injustice, and no harm

Aristotle’s Four Parts of an Argument 2. Narration: “some survey of the actions that form the subject-matter of the speech” 3. Argument: “to attempt demonstrative proofs” Proof Reply to Opponent: “break down the opponent’s case, whether by objection or by counter-syllogism” Interrogation

Aristotle’s Parts of an Argument 4. Epilogue “Make the audience well-disposed towards yourself and ill-disposed towards your opponent” “Magnify or minimize the leading facts” “Excite the required state of emotion in your hearers” “Refresh their memories”

Cicero’s Six Parts of an Argument 1. Goodwill Secure the goodwill of your audience 2. State your Case 3. Define the Dispute 4. Your Allegations 5. Disprove Opponents 6. Peroration Expand and reinforce

Boethius (480-524 C.E.)

Boethius’ Six Parts of an Argument 1. Introduction: Purpose 2. Argument: The disagreement 3. Partition: Parts of the argument or situation 4. Proof: Evidence 5. Refutation: Opponent’s point of view 6. Peroration: Flowery and highly rhetorical oration; stylistic ending

Desiderius Erasmus 1. Exordium 2. Narration 3. Division Erasmus’ Six Parts of an ARGUMENT 1. Exordium 2. Narration 3. Division 4. Confirmation 5. Refutation 6. Conclusion Exordium—the introduction of a speech, where one announces the subject and purpose of the discourse, and where one usually employs the persuasive appeal of ethos in order to establish credibility with the audience

Wilson’s Seven Parts of an Argument 1. “Enteraunce” Seek out a judge or audience for your argument 2. “Narration” Use logos and a plain style to explain “all thynges”

Wilson’s Seven Parts of an Argument 3. “Proposition” “a pithie [or concise] sentence, comprehendyng in a smale roume, the some of the whole matter” 4. “Division” “an openying of thynges…in our awne behalfe” 5. “Confirmation” “a declaracion of our awne reasons with assured and constaunt profes”

Wilson’s Seven Parts of an Argument 6. “Confutation” “a dissolvyng or wipyning awaie, or all suche reasons as make against us” 7. “Conclusion” “a clarkely gatheryng of the matter, spoken before, and a lappyng up of it altogether”

Monroe’s Motivated Sequence 1. Attention Detailed story, shocking example, dramatic statistics, quotes 2. Need (psychological) 3. Satisfaction Provide solutions 4. Visualization Be visual and detailed 5. Action What action can the audience take to solve the problem Psychologist Alan H. Monroe (1903-1975)

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Five Parts of a Rogerian Argument 1. Objective Statement of the Issue 2. Summarize Opposition’s Case 3. Statement of Your Position 4. If a Compromise of the position is possible, attempt it; if not, show how your position is also beneficial to one’s opponent; outline common ground or mutual concerns 5. Outline your Proposed Solution Demonstrate an understanding of your opponent’s position Use objective language Avoid loaded language or hint or moral superiority 5. Point out what both sides may gain

Stephen Toulmin (1922-2009)

Toulmin’s Five Parts of an Argument 1. Claim An argument intended to persuade 2. Data Plural of the Latin word datum, “something given” Support; factual information, especially information organized for analysis or used to reason or make decisions

Toulmin’s Five Parts of an Argument 3. Warrant How does the data support the claim? 4. Modal Qualifiers The use of words like “sometimes,” “most,” “many,” and “some” to qualify arguments 5. Rebuttal Offer a counter-argument

The Style of Isaeus (the Attic Orator) According to Encyclopedia Britannica, Isaeus’ work shows that his speeches followed no distinct pattern; instead, Isaeus would vary, “the structure according to the needs of each particular speech” (“Isaeus”). Cicero also makes the same point about an effective rhetor or orator that they should have a variety of approaches available to them.

Trends in Organization Most rhetoricians recognize these five parts of an argument: 1. Exordium 2. Narratio 3. Confirmatio 4. Refutatio 5. Peroratio