Nation Building and Economic Transformation in the Americas, 1800-1890 Chapter 25

I. Independence in Latin America, 1800-1830 A. Roots of Revolution, to 1810 People of Latin America knew about the Enlightenment, American and French revolutions Local-born elites and middle class angry with colonial governments (high taxes, monopolies) Napoleon invaded Portugal and Spain (1807, 1808) Undermined authority of colonial officials Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil Napoleon replaced Spanish King Ferdinand with his brother Joseph Spanish patriots created the Junta Central: claimed rights to exercise king’s powers over Spanish colonies

Colonies split between those who obeyed the Junta (majority) and those who wanted local autonomy until the king regained power (vocal, wealthy minority) Armed uprisings as a result 1808-09: popular movements overthrew Spanish colonial officials in Venezuela, Mexico, Alto Peru (Bolivia) Spanish officials usually regained control and punished leaders; harsh repression led to polarized public opinion, greater sense of separate American identities

B. Spanish South America, 1810-1825 Revolutionary Junta in 1811 in Caracas (Venezuela) led by creoles (colonial-born whites) Large landowners, talked of democracy but didn’t act on it Wanted to eliminate Spaniards from upper levels of society Thousands of free blacks and slaves defended Spanish Empire Junta placed authority with military leader Simón Bolívar (later became preeminent leader of independence movement in Spanish South America) Son of wealthy Venezuelan planters, educated Successfully adapted objectives and policies to attract new allies and build coalitions Enlisted demobilized English veterans 1820 revolt in Spain forced King Ferdinand to accept a constitutional monarchy

Bolívar’s army liberated Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Buenos Aires was the second important center of revolutionary activity in Spanish South America. Junta made up of militia commanders, merchants, and ranchers overthrew the viceroy in 1810. Pretended at first to be loyal to imprisoned king In 1816 declared independence as the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata Chileans and Argentines led by José de San Martín in 1817 Gained victory in Chile against Spanish military forces but failed in Peru Surrendered command to Bolívar by 1824

C. Mexico, 1810-1823 Spain’s wealthiest (silver) and most populous (Mexico City) colony Largest population of Spanish immigrants among the colonies Spaniards dominated the government, church, and economy Colonial authority rested on brute force after Napoleon First stage of revolution began in central Mexico Wealthy ranchers and farmers, miners, urban poor, defeated Amerindians Parish priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla urged a crowd of thousands to rise up against Spanish oppression (Sept. 1810) Rural and urban poor lacked military discipline and weapons but reacted violently against their oppressors Wealthy Mexicans eventually supported Spanish authorities Military turned against Hidalgo, executed in 1811

Revolution continued under another priest, José María Morelos Loyalists defeated him, executed in 1815 Loyalists forged alliance with insurgents in 1821 Declared Mexican independence, decided to create monarchy led by Colonel Augustín de Iturbide By 1823, army overthrew Iturbide and Mexico became a republic

D. Brazil, to 1831 Portuguese King John VI returned to Portugal in 1821 to protect his throne Left son Pedro in Brazil as regent Brazil influenced by surrounding Spanish colonial revolutions Pedro declared Brazilian independence in 1822, became constitutional monarchy Pedro I committed to monarchy and liberal principles Supported constitution: elected assembly, political protections Anti-slavery attitude angered wealthy slave-owning class, treaty with Britain ended Brazilian slave trade in 1830 Expensive military failures aroused public to turn against king Pedro I abdicated in 1831, 5 year old son Pedro II became emperor, assumed full powers at age 14, reigned until he was overthrown in 1889 by republicans

II. The Problem of Order A. Constitutional Experiments Revolutionaries supported constitutionalism: description of political powers in written form, best protection for individual rights and liberties Many first attempts did not work out. Latin America did not have the political representative history that the U.S. did. Every new republic in the Americas limited the right to vote to free men with property Confederation of 1867: new Dominion of Canada, central govt. in Ottawa Disputes in Latin America over the role of the Catholic church Most Latin American militaries escaped civilian control

Canada, 1867

B. Personalist Leaders Patriot leaders gained mass followings (Washington, Iturbide, Bolívar). Fewer checks on Latin American personalist leaders By 1900, every Latin American nation had experienced periods of dictatorship.

C. The Threat of Regionalism Efforts to form large multistate federations in Spanish America failed. Civil wars and rebellions plagued Argentina until Juan Manuel de Rosas came to power. Use of intimidation and force created enemies Cycle of civil war prevented a strong central government Regionalism played a role in forming the U.S. constitution and in later years. Territorial acquisition and slavery

D. Foreign Interventions and Regional Wars Contested national borders and regional rivalries led to wars in the Western Hemisphere. The U.S., Brazil, Argentina, and Chile successfully waged wars on neighbors and est. selves as regional powers. War of 1812: U.S. vs. Britain Texas became a U.S. state in 1845. U.S. attacked Mexico in 1846, won by 1848 1898-99: U.S. vs. Spain, U.S. began building empire Argentina fought off British and French naval blockades. Mexico had a civil war in the 1850s, president Benito Juárez replaced with Austrian Habsburg Maximilian, Juárez later returned Chile est. self as leading military and economic power Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil ganged up on Paraguay.

E. Native Peoples and the Nation-State Conflicts with Amerindians after American independences Continued to fight back against U.S. govt. but constantly defeated Indigenous peoples of Argentina and Chile faced common trajectory of adaptation, resistance, and defeat. Maya rebelled in 1847 in Yucatán peninsula, eventually defeated but great violence and destruction

III. The Challenge of Social and Economic Change A. The Abolition of Slavery Britain ended its participation in the slave trade in 1807. Negotiated treaties with other countries to end slave trade to Americas, used navy for enforcement Slavery in British colonies ended in 1833. Slavery survived in much of the Western Hemisphere until the 1850s. More difficult to end in countries that relied on plantation products (U.S., Cuba, Brazil) Women and free African Americans played a large role in the abolition movement in the U.S. U.S. ended slavery in 1865, harsh segregation laws followed Brazil abolished slavery in 1888. Slavery in the Caribbean lasted longest in Cuba and Puerto Rico.

B. Immigration Africans had outnumbered whites coming to the Americas. After the slave trade ended, more Europeans and Asians immigrated. Fostered rapid economic growth, occupation of frontier regions, promoted urbanization “old” immigrants: northern and western Europe; “new” immigrants: southern and eastern Europe Nativist political movements Asians faced the worst discrimination (Chinese Exclusion Act, 1882), but most groups faced negative stereotypes.

C. American Cultures Ethnic organizations and neighborhoods formed as a way for immigrants to feel comfortable in new countries. Efforts to forge national cultures through education, military, etc. Cultural exchanges

D. Women’s Rights and the Struggle for Social Justice 1848: Seneca Falls Convention in NY Progress equally slow for women across the continents Argentina and Uruguay were the first in Latin America to allow girls in public education. Reform movements often led by middle-class women Fewer racial restrictions in Latin America than in the U.S.

E. Development and Underdevelopment Nearly all Western Hemisphere nations were richer in 1900 than in 1800. The U.S. was the only WH nation to industrialize during the 1800s. Industrial revolution led to mining booms European and North American corporations owned most Latin American enterprises. Natural resources exported to foreign markets Industrialization and prosperity vs. dependence on raw materials and low-wage industries

Argentina was the only Latin American nation to reach U. S Argentina was the only Latin American nation to reach U.S. and Canada levels of prosperity. Many Latin American countries gained independence at a period of bad global economic times. Subject to oversupply and low prices Low wages and an abundance of foreign manufactured goods Weak governments, political instability, civil war all slowed economic growth

F. Altered Environments Continued environmental destruction with high demand for natural resources Rapid urbanization put heavy pressure on the environment. Also contributed to the growth of the world economy and regional prosperity Some conservation efforts by the end of the 1800s

IV. Conclusion Enormous changes in the WH during the 19th century Most areas ended colonial control Stemmed from Enlightenment and nationalism The creation of stable and effective governments proved difficult. Divisive regional political movements Wealth, political power, and population increasingly concentrated in urban areas Latin American nations were stronger than they had been but still lagged behind the U.S. and Canada.