Data Collection Method

Sources of Data Primary sources Secondary sources Primary data refer to information obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purposes of the study Secondary sources Secondary data refer to information gathered from sources already existing

Primary Sources of Data Individuals Focus groups Aimed at obtaining respondents’ impressions, interpretations, and opinions. Provides only qualitative and not quantitative information Can not be considered to be truly representative Focus groups are used for (1) exploratory studies, (2) making generalizations based on the information gathered by them, and (3) conducting sample surveys Videoconferencing

Primary Sources of Data Cont’d) Panels Whereas focus groups meet for a one-time group session, panels meet more than once. Static or dynamic Typically used when several aspects of a product are to be studied from time to time Unobtrusive Measures Originate from a primary source that does not involve people

Secondary Sources Advantage of seeking secondary data sources is savings in time and costs of acquiring information. Drawbacks: obsolete, not meeting the specific needs of a particular situation or setting

Data Collection Methods Observation Survey: Questionnaires Interviews Unobtrusive Methods

Observation Nonparticipant and participant observer Structured and unstructured

Observation Watching Listening Touching Smelling Reading Besides collecting data visually, observation involves listening, reading, smelling, and touching. Exhibit 9-2 describes the conditions under which observation is appropriate and this exhibit is provided on the following slide.

Evaluation of Behavioral Observation Strengths Securing information that is otherwise unavailable Avoiding participant filtering/ forgetting Securing environmental context Optimizing naturalness Weaknesses Enduring long periods Incurring higher expenses Having lower reliability of inferences Quantifying data Keeping large records This slide lists the strengths and limitations of observation as a data collection method. Observation is the only method available for gathering certain types of information. Another advantage is that it can capture the whole event as it occurs in its natural environment. Observation participants seem to accept an observational intrusion better than they respond to the intrusion of survey takers. Further, some observation studies are concealed A key limitation of observation is that it records what, where, who, and how, but cannot record why people behave as they do. Observation is slow and expensive. Observation may be factual or inferential. It is most reliable when it is based on fact. Exhibit 9-4, shown on the next slide, shows how we can separate the factual and inferential component of a salesperson’s presentation.

Interviewing Unstructured interviews Interviewer does not enter the interview setting with a planned sequences of questions to be asked of the respondent The objective: to bring some preliminary issues to the surface so that the researcher can determine what variables need further in-depth investigation

Interviewing (Cont’d) Structured interviews Those conducted when it is known at the outset what information is needed. The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to be asked of the respondents

Advantages of the Telephone Survey Lower costs than personal interview Expanded geographic coverage Use of few interviewers Reduced interviewer bias Fast completion time Better access to some participants Random dialing possible CATI possible

Disadvantages of the Telephone Survey Lower response rate than personal interview Higher costs if interviewing geographically dispersed sample Interview length limited Unlisted phone numbers/ Call screening Some unavailable by phone Unit-nonresponse Lack of visuals While data collection using the telephone has many advantages, there are also disadvantages. This slide lists many of the disadvantages. Approximately 94% of all US households have access to telephone service. However, households with incomes below the poverty line remain underrepresented with phone access below 75%. Also, more households are using filtering devices like caller ID, and Tele-Zapper. Random dialing is designed to reduce some of the bias caused by participant availability issues. Random dialing also limits the problem with inaccurate numbers. Ten minutes is generally thought of as the ideal length for telephone interviews, but interviews of 20 minutes is not uncommon. The telephone limits the complexity of the survey and the use of complex scales or measurement techniques that is possible with personal interviewing. Participants find it easy to terminate a phone interview. Telemarketing practices may be one reason for this. The environment in which one answers a phone survey varies given that many people use cellular phones, wireless phones, and office phones. Data quality and refusal rates could be affected these distracting circumstances.

Personal Survey Advantages Disadvantages Good cooperation rates Interviewer can probe and explain Visual aids possible Illiterate participants can be reached Interviewer can prescreen CAPI possible Disadvantages High costs Need for highly trained interviewers Time consuming Labor-intensive Some unwilling to invite strangers into homes Interviewer bias possible

Sources of Error Error Sources Measurement Participant Questions There are three major sources of error in communication research: measurement questions and survey instruments, interviewers, and participants. Researchers cannot help a business decision maker answer a research question if they 1) select or craft inappropriate questions, 2) ask them in inappropriate order, or 3) use inappropriate transitions and instructions to elicit information. Chapters 12, 13, and 14, will cover ways to avoid these sources of error. Interviewer error is error that results from interviewer influence of the participant. It can be caused by several actions such as 1) failure to secure full participant cooperation, 2) failure to record answers accurately and completely, 3) failure to consistently execute interview procedures, 4) failure to establish appropriate interview environment, 5) falsification of answers, 6) inappropriate influencing behavior, and 7) physical presence bias. Participants cause error in two ways: whether they respond (willingness) and how they respond. Three factors influence participant participation: The participant must believe that the experience will be pleasant and satisfying. The participant must believe that answering the survey is worthwhile. The participant must dismiss any mental reservations about participation. Interviewer

Interviewing (Cont’d) Can be minimized: Establishing credibility and rapport, and motivating individuals to respond Questioning techniques: funneling, unbiased questions, clarifying issues, helping the respondents to think through issues, taking notes

Face-to-face Interviews Advantages: Adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubts, and ensure that the responses are properly understood Pick up nonverbal cues from the respondent Any discomfort, stress, or problems that the respondent experiences can be detected Disadvantages: Geographical limitations Vast resources needed High costs Respondents might feel uneasy about the anonymity of their responses

Telephone Interviews Advantages: Disadvantages: A number of differently different people can be reached in a relatively short period of time It would eliminate any discomfort on respondents Disadvantages: Respondents could unilaterally terminate the interview without warning or explanation, by hanging up the phone. Researcher will not be able to read the nonverbal communication

Advantages of Self-Administered Questionnaires Allows contact with inaccessible participants Incentives increase response rates Lowest-cost option Geographic coverage Minimal staff required Perceived as anonymous Allows participants time for reflection Allows for complex questions Rapid data collection possible Visuals possible Multiple sampling frames possible Exhibit 10-5 presents a comparison of communication approaches. The advantages and disadvantages for each mode are presented on the next several slides.

Disadvantages of Self-Administered Questionnaires Low response rates in some modes No interviewer intervention Cannot be too long Cannot be too complex Requires accurate list Skewed responses by extremists Participant anxiety possible Directions necessary Need for low-distraction environment Computer security Drawn from Exhibit 10-5.

Questionnaires (Cont’d) Guidelines for questionnaires design Principles of wording Content and the purpose of the questions Language and wording of the questionnaires Type and form of questions Sequencing of questions Classification data or personal information

Questionnaires (Cont’d) Pretesting of Structured Questions To ensure that the questions are understood by the respondents There are no problems with the wording or measurement

Improving Response Rates Advance notification Reminders Return directions and devices Monetary incentives Deadlines Promise of anonymity Appeal for participation More than 200 articles have been published on methods for improving response rates to surveys. This slide lists several practical suggestions. Deadlines do not increase response rates overall but do encourage respondents to respond sooner. The promise of anonymity also does not increase response rates but is important to those who do respond. All the other suggestions do result in increases in response rates.