Introduction to Rhetoric Analytical and Rhetorical Writing Matt Barton

One Minute Prompt #1 What is effective writing?

Well, what is rhetoric? Rhetoric is defined as The art of persuasion Trickery or brainwashing techniques Meaningless ornamentation; bombast The study of effective discourse

Ancient Rhetoric Aristotle defines rhetoric as The faculty or ability to discover all available means of persuasion in a given situation. Counterpart of “dialectic,” a type of formal reasoning that leads to truth.

The History of Rhetoric The study of rhetoric began in Ancient Greece. A new democracy established Citizens had to go before courts to justify their ownership of land. The sophists (Protagoras, Gorgias, Isocrates) were traveling teachers who taught people to speak persuasively.

Protagoras (481-420 BC) He is best known for saying, “Man is the measure of all things.” Placed emphasis on using words correctly. Charged extremely high fees to attend his lectures.

Gorgias (483-376 BC) Gorgias’ main three arguments were: Nothing exists Even if something exists, nothing can be known about it, and Even if something could be known about it, knowledge about it can't be communicated to others Often called “The Nihilist.”

Isocrates (436–338 BC) Operated a very successful school in Athens Combined rhetoric with study of ethics and politics Taught “practical” skills rather than abstract philosophies

Topoi Sophists taught a kind of argument template called a topos (plural topoi), which meant “common places” Example: “If a quality does not in fact exist where it is more likely to exist, it clearly does not exist where it is less likely.”

Sophistry The main sophists’ main claim is that absolute truth is irrelevant; what matters is what the intended audience believes to be true.

Conflicts with Plato Plato complained that the sophists didn’t care about truth; they would train people to argue effectively even if they knew they were wrong. Compared rhetoric to “cookery,” or mere ornamentation.

Aristotle Argued that rhetoric was a tool that could be used for good or evil. His book, the Rhetoric, remains one of the best treatises ever written on the subject of rhetoric. Identified three types of rhetorical proof: Pathos, Logos, and Ethos

Pathos Pathos appeals rely on emotions and feelings to persuade the audience They are often direct, simple, and very powerful

Logos “Logos appeals” rely on the audience’s intelligence to persuade them. Education causes audiences to be more skeptical of emotional arguments and more receptive to logos

Ethos Ethos is a person’s credibility with a given audience. It can mean sincerity, authority, expertise, faithful, or any adjective that describes someone you can trust to do the right thing.

Rhetoric in Ancient Rome The Romans took Greek Rhetoric and used them to teach. The Romans divided rhetoric into five canons: Invention Arrangement Style Memory Delivery

Stasis Stasis is the process of discovering the true issues at the heart of a debate. Conjectural Question of Fact: Did Smith kill Jones? Definitional Question of Definition: Was this murder or manslaughter? Qualitative Question of Quality: Did Smith have a good reason? Translative Jurisdiction: Is this the right venue for this discussion?

16th Century (Renaissance) Peter Ramus took Invention and Arrangement away from Rhetoric and gave them to Philosophy Argued that discovering truth (philosophy) is not related to presenting the truth (rhetoric)

What does formal reasoning leave out? Emphasis on certainty and reasoning led to “scientism,” or the idea that all non-scientific claims are of equal value. With no way to argue about ethics or morality, non-scientific decisions must be made by force.

Modern Rhetoric Now we are returning to the classical perspectives of rhetoric. Rhetoric is useful for helping us make decisions about things that we cannot know for certain. Kenneth Burke defines rhetoric as the use of symbols to induce cooperation in those who by nature respond to symbols.

What can I learn from rhetoric? Rhetorical thinking means asking yourself these questions when you are engaged in a written or spoken argument: What is my claim? What statements will I need to make to support my claim? How can I show that my evidence really supports my claim? Rhetorical thinking is always focused on the audience.

One Minute Prompt What is rhetoric?