Chapter 2 Objectives Identify the body cavities and recognize the organs contained within those cavities. Locate and identify the anatomical and clinical divisions of the abdomen. Locate and name the anatomical divisions of the back.

Terms Pertaining to the Body as a Whole Chapter 2 Pages 33 – 74

Structural Organization of the Body Page 34 Structural Organization of the Body Cells – smallest living unit Tissues – group of similar cells working together Organs – different types of tissues working together Systems – groups of organs working together Cells = the fundamental unit (or smallest living unit) of all living things (animal or plant). Every tissue and organ is made up of these individual units. Tissue = a group of similar cells working together to do a specific job. Histologist = a scientist who specializes in the study of tissues. Organ = Different types of tissue combined to form organs. Example: The stomach is composed of muscle, nerve, & glandular epithelial tissue (viscera = the medical term for internal organs [singular: viscus].) Systems = groups of organs working together to perform complex functions.

Major Parts of Cells Page 34 Chromosomes Nucleus Cell membrane Cytoplasm Mitochondria Endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes ALL CELLS contain a gelatinous substance composed of water, protein, sugar, acids, fats, and various materials. Major parts of a cell include: Chromosomes: rod like-structures within the nucleus that contains thousands of genes. All human body cells – except for the sex cells, the egg & the sperm (short for spermatozoon) – contain 23 pairs of chromosomes. Each sperm & egg cell have only 23 unpaired chromosomes. After egg & a sperm cell unite to form the embryo, each cell of the embryo then has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Nucleus: controls the operation of the cell. It directs cell division and determines the structure and function of the cell Cell membrane: surrounds and protects the cell. It also regulates what passes into and out of the cell. Cytoplasm: includes all of the material outside the nucleus and enclosed by the cells membrane. It carries on the work of the cell; contains specialized apparatus to supply the chemical needs of the cell. Mitochondria (power plants): structures in the cytoplasm that provide the principal source of energy for the cell. Endoplasmic reticulum: Network of canals within the cytoplasm of the cell. Contain ribosomes. Ribosomes: builds long chains of protein

Similarity in Cells Page 35 – 37 Gene DNA Karyotype Metabolism Catabolism Anabolism Gene: contains a chemical called DNA. DNA: regulates the activities of the cell according to its sequence. resembles a series of recipes in code. This code, when passed out of the nucleus to the rest of the cell, directs the activities of the cell, such as cell division & synthesis of proteins. Karyotype: a test to identify and evaluate the size, shape, & number of chromosomes in a sample of body cells. Extra or missing chromosomes, or abnormal positions of chromosome pieces, can cause problems with a person's growth, development, and body functions Metabolism: Total chemical process in a cell. It includes catabolism & anabolism. Catabolism: the process that occurs in mitochondria. Anabolism: process of building large proteins from small protein pieces called amino acids.

Differences in Cells Page 38 Cells are specialized to carry out their individual functions. muscle cell epithelial cell nerve cell fat cell Cells are specialized to carry out their individual functions. muscle cell = long & slender & contains fibers that aid in contracting & relaxing epithelial cell = square & flat to provide protection (a lining & skin cell) nerve cell = long & have various fibrous extensions that aid in carrying impulses fat cell = contains large, empty spaces for fat storage.

Pages 38 – 39 Tissues The different types: Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscle tissue Nerve tissue A TISSUE is a group of similar cells working together to do a specific job. The different types: Epithelial Tissue – Located all over the body, forms the linings of internal organs and the outer surface of the skin covering the body. Lines exocrine and endocrine glands Connective Tissue – Examples: adipose (fat) tissue, cartilage, bone, blood Muscle Tissue – Voluntary = found in arms, legs & parts of the body where movement is under conscious control. Involuntary = found in the heart, digestive system & in other organs, where movement is not under conscious control Cardiac = found only in the heart Nerve Tissue – tissue conducts impulses all over the body.

Systems Page 40 Digestive Musculoskeletal Urinary or Excretory Skin and Sense organs Reproductive – Female & Male Endocrine Nervous Circulatory Respiratory Different types of tissue that combine to form an organ AND Groups of organs working together to perform complex functions = Systems The following are systems we will be studying this term System Organs Digestive – Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas Urinary or Excretory – Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra Reproductive – Female: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands Male: Testes and associated tubes, urethra, penis, prostate gland Nervous – Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and collections of nerves Circulatory – Heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nodes, spleen, and thymus glands Respiratory – Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes, lungs Musculoskeletal – Muscles, bones, and joints Skin and Sense organs – Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands, eye, ear, nose, and tongue Endocrine – Thyroid gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, sex, adrenal, and parathyroid glands

Body Cavities Page 40 Cranial – Brain, pituitary gland Spinal – Nerves of the spinal cord Thoracic – Lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, bronchial tubes, thymus gland, major blood vessels Abdominal – stomach, small/large intestines, spleen, pancreas, liver, gallbladder Pelvic – small/larges intestines, rectum, urinary bladder, urethra, & ureters Body cavities are spaces within the body that contains internal organs [vicera] Cranial = Brain, pituitary gland Spinal = Nerves of the spinal cord Thoracic = Lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, bronchial tubes, thymus gland, major blood vessels (ex: aorta) It is divided into two smaller cavities: Pleural cavity - space surrounding each lung. The pleura is a double membrane that surrounds the lungs & protects them. If the pleura is inflamed, the pleural cavity may fill with fluid. Mediastinum - It contains the heart, aorta, trachea, esophagus, thymus gland, bronchial tubes, & many lymph nodes. The diaphragm divides the abdominal & thoracic cavities. Abdominal (Peritoneum) – the double-folded membrane surrounding the abdominal cavity. It attaches the abdominal organs to the abdominal muscles & surrounds each organ to hold it in place. It contains the stomach, small & large intestines, spleen, pancreas, liver, & gallbladder. Pelvic = Portions of the small & larges intestines, rectum, urinary bladder, urethra, & ureters (uterus & vagina in the female) The kidneys are situated behind the abdominal cavity on either side of the backbone.

Abdominopelvic Regions Page 48 Abdominopelvic Regions Right hypochondriac region Epigastric region Right lumbar region Left hypochondriac region Left lumbar region Umbilical region Left inguinal region Right inguinal region Hypogastric region because the abdominal pelvic cavity was so large scientists decided they wanted a more precise way to name locate the organs there so they came up with nine abdominal Regions Right & Left hypochondriac region Epigastric region Right & Left lumbar region Umbilical region Right & Left inguinal region Hypogastric region

Abdominopelvic Quadrants Page 49 Abdominopelvic Quadrants Right upper quadrant (RUQ) – contains the liver (right lobe), gallbladder, part of the pancreas, parts of the small & large intestines Left upper quadrant (LUQ) – contains the liver (left lobe), stomach, spleen, part of the pancreas, parts of the small & large intestines Right lower quadrant (RLQ) – contains parts of the small & large intestines, right ovary, right fallopian tube, appendix, right ureter Left lower quadrant (LLQ) – contains parts of the small & large intestines, left ovary, left fallopian tube, left ureter

Divisions of the Back (Spinal Column) Page 50 – 51 Divisions of the Back (Spinal Column) Cervical Thoracic Lumbar Sacral Coccygeal Each bone is a vertebra (plural: vertebrae) Cervical – C1-C7 Thoracic – T1-T12 Lumbar – L1-L5 Sacral – S1-S5 Coccygeal The spinal column is composed of a series of bones that extend from the neck to the tailbone. Each bone is a vertebra (plural: vertebrae) Cervical – Neck region. There are seven cervical vertebrae (C1 to C7) Thoracic – Chest region. There are 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12) Lumbar – Loin (waist) or flank region (between the ribs & the hip bone) There are five lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5) Sacral – Five bones (S1 to S5) are fused to from one bone, the sacrum Coccygeal – The coccyx (tailbone) is a small bone composed of four fused pieces. spinal column = bone tissue vs. spinal cord = nervous tissue Intervertebral spaces = The spaces between the vertebrae (identified according to the two vertebrae between which they occur) Disk (disc) = a small pad within the space & between vertebrae. The disk, composed of water & cartilage, is a shock absorber. A disk may move out of place & put pressure on a nerve. This “slipped disk” can cause pain in an area of the body affected by the nerve.

Positional & Directional Page 52 Positional & Directional Anterior (ventral) vs Posterior (dorsal) Inferior vs Superior Medial vs Lateral Deep vs Superficial Supine vs Prone Proximal vs Distal Superior Posterior (dorsal) Anterior (ventral) Proximal Deep Superficial Medial Lateral Distal Inferior Supine Prone POSITIONAL AND DIRECTIONAL TERMINOLGOY Anterior (Ventral) = Front side of the body AND Posterior (Dorsal) = Back side of the body EXAMPLE: The forehead is on the anterior side of the body EXAMPLE: The back of the head is posterior to the face Deep = Away from the surface AND Superficial = On the surface EXAMPLE: The stab wound penetrated deep into the abdomen EXAMPLE: Superficial veins can be viewed through the skin Proximal = Near the point of attachment to the trunk or near the beginning of the structure AND Distal = Far from the point of attachment to the trunk of far from the beginning of a structure EXAMPLE: The proximal end of the thigh bone joins with the hip socket EXAMPLE: At its distal end, the femur joins with the knee Inferior = Below another structure AND Superior = Above another structure EXAMPLE: The feet are at the inferior part of the body EXAMPLE: The head lies superior to the neck Medial = Pertaining to the middle, or nearer the medial plane of the body AND Lateral = Pertaining to the side EXAMPLE: When in the anatomic position (palms of the hands facing outward), the fifth (little) finger is medial EXAMPLE: When in anatomic position, the thumb is lateral Supine = lying on the back AND Prone = Lying on the belly EXAMPLE: The patient lies supine during an examination of the abdomen & in females, during a pelvic exam EXAMPLE: The backbones are examined with the patient in a prone position.

Planes of the Body Page 52 Frontal (coronal) Sagittal (lateral) vrs. Midsagittal Transverse (cross- sectional or axial) Frontal (coronal) Sagittal (lateral) Transverse (axial) Frontal (coronal) Plane = Vertical plane dividing the body or structure into anterior & posterior portions. A common chest x-ray veiw is PA (posteroanterior - veiw from back to from) view, which is in the frontal (coronal) plane Sagittal (lateral) Plane = Legthwise vertical plane dividing the body or structure into right & left sides. The midsagittal plane divides the body into right & lefts halves. A lateral (side-to-side) chest x-ray film is taken in the sagittal plane Transverse (axial) Plane = Horizontal (cross-sectional) plane running across the body parallel to the ground. This cross-sectional plane divides the body or structure into upper & lower portions. A CT (computed tomography) scan is one of a series of x-ray pictures taken in the transverse (axial or cross-sectional) plane.