Psychological Foundations All text in these slides is taken from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/ where it is published under one or more open licenses. All images in these slides are attributed in the notes of the slide on which they appear and licensed as indicated. Cover Image: "An Introduction to Conceptual and Historical Issues in Psychology, Aberystwyth University." Authored by: The CADARN Learning Portal. Located at: https://youtu.be/aQI1pnzDhD4. Content Type: CC Licensed Content, Shared Previously. License: CC BY: Attribution Memory

Memory Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over time Introduction to Memory. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:m3fzcXQd@4/Introduction. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11629/latest/.

Memory: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval Encoding inputs information into the memory system Storage is the retention of the encoded information Retrieval is getting the information out of memory and back into awareness  (credit a: modification of work by Maarten Takens; credit b: modification of work by “Shayan (USA)”/Flickr) in What is Cognition?. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.49:u8MlFxBQ@7/What-Is-Cognition. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11629/latest/.

Three Types of Encoding Acoustic encoding: input of sounds, words, and music Semantic encoding: input of words and their meaning Visual encoding: input of images Recoding: taking the information from the form it is delivered to us and then converting it in a way that we can make sense of it

Three Stages of Storage Information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory. How Memory Functions. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:-RwqQWzt@6/How-Memory-Functions. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.48

Components of Long-term Memory How Memory Functions. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:-RwqQWzt@6/How-Memory-Functions. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.48

Retrieval Recall: accessing information without cues Recognition: identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue Encoding specificity principle: the hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram or memory trace. Relearning: learning information that was previously learned [Photo: sean dreilinger] in How Memory Functions. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:-RwqQWzt@6/How-Memory-Functions. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.48

Memory in the Brain The amygdala is involved in emotional memories. The hippocampus is associated with declarative and episodic memory as well as recognition memory The cerebellum plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks Parts of the Brain Involved with Memory. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:Lbm_tyot@7/Parts-of-the-Brain-Involved-wi. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11629/latest/.

Memory Problems: Amnesia Amnesia: loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories Retrograde Amnesia: loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma Problems with Memory. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:I97J3Te3@7/Problems-with-Memory. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11629/latest/.

Why We Forget Section on deliberately forgetting memories and image. Authored by: Nicole Dudukovic and Brice Kuhl . Provided by: New York University. Located at: http://nobaproject.com/textbooks/wendy-king-introduction-to-psychology-the-full-noba-collection/modules/forgetting-and-amnesia. Project: The Noba Project. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

Memory Errors Sin Type Description Example Transience Forgetting Accessibility of memory decreases over time Forget events that occurred long ago Absentmindedness Forgetting caused by lapses in attention Forget where your phone is Blocking Accessibility of information is temporarily blocked Tip of the tongue Misattribution Distortion Source of memory is confused Recalling a dream memory as a waking memory Suggestibility False memories Result from leading questions Bias Memories distorted by current belief system Align memories to current beliefs Persistence Intrusion Inability to forget undesirable memories Traumatic events

Forgetting: Interference Forgetting may be caused by failure to retrieve information This can be due to interference, either retroactive or proactive Problems with Memory. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:I97J3Te3@7/Problems-with-Memory. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.48

Why is Eyewitness Testimony Unreliable? Suggestibility: Effects of misinformation from external sources lead to the creation of false memories Misinformation effect: Given incorrect information, witnesses may misremember the original event Problems with Memory. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:I97J3Te3@7/Problems-with-Memory. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/4abf04bf-93a0-45c3-9cbc-2cefd46e68cc@5.48

Memory Enhancing Strategies Techniques to help make sure information goes from short- term memory to long-term memory include: Rehearsal Chunking Elaborative rehearsal Mnemonic device (credit: modification of work by Cory Zanker) Ways to Enhance Memory. Authored by: OpenStax College. Located at: http://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@5.52:FI0Dk4wx@5/Ways-to-Enhance-Memory. License: CC BY: Attribution. License Terms: Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11629/latest/.

How to Study Use elaborative rehearsal Apply the self-reference effect Don’t forget the forgetting curve Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse Be aware of interference Keep moving Get enough sleep Make use of mnemonic devices

Practice Problem Use a memory enhancing strategy presented in this section to remember the different types of amnesia and the different types of interference Answers may vary.

Quick Review Explain the three types of encoding Describe the three stages of memory storage Describe and distinguish between procedural and declarative memory and semantic and episodic memory Explain retrieval cues and define recall, recognition, and relearning Explain the brain functions involved in memory; recognize the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum in memory

More Quick Review Compare and contrast anterograde and retrograde amnesia Explain encoding failure and give examples of common memory errors Describe the unreliability of eyewitness testimony Explain the misinformation effect Recognize and apply memory-enhancing strategies, including mnemonics, rehearsal, chunking, and peg- words