observations

Different types of observations The following slides will describe the following: Participant observation Non-Participant observation-Covert or Overt Naturalistic observation

Participant Observation Become part of the group you observe Form relationships with group members Take notes on what they say, body language Must be reflexive Always reflect on how you are interpreting data How you might be affected by joining the group

Participant Observation: Strengths Combines emic (subjective participant perspective) with etic (objective observer perspective) Detailed and in-depth knowledge of a phenomenon that cannot be gained by other methods Minimizes researcher bias because researcher (isn’t supposed to) impose their views Provides holistic picture of phenomenon because many aspects/characteristics of a group of people are included Cult example – different ceremonies, how they behave during meals, leader speeches etc.

Participant Observation: Limitations Difficult to record data immediately (unnatural to pull out notebook) and objectively (humans interpret) Time-consuming, demanding physically and psychologically Have to become one of the group, spend time getting to know them With cult you have devote a significant period of time Researcher can lose objectivity Supposed to ‘go native’ and immerse yourself in the culture to see the world through the group’s eyes Must balance detachment and involvement

Non-Participant Observation Observe group from afar Take notes on what they say, body language Overt – participants aware Participants who know they are being watched may be ‘reactive’ and invalidate data Covert – participants unaware May have to use deception but will reduce participant reactivity

Watch an example of a covert observation This study was exploring child and parent behaviours in a laboratory setting behind a one way mirror (similar to Bobo doll)

Naturalistic Observation Observe group in natural conditions Criminals in prison Mental patients in psychiatric institution Monkeys at a resort (up for debate) Can use cameras (can be hidden) Less likely to affect participant behavior (less reactivity)

Naturalistic Observation Strengths High ecological validity Because they are observed in their natural environment and not an artificial lab setting Collect data in situations where it would otherwise be impossible or unethical Alzheimer’s patients Just observing them, not running experiments on them

Naturalistic Observation Limitations Reactivity can confound results because participants alter their behavior because researcher is observing participants Collecting the data alone compromises the integrity Use multiple researchers to increase inter-observer reliability All the researchers agree Researchers document how they arrived at conclusions Ethical concerns about observing people without their knowledge Researchers must justify use of deception on ethical forms Shouldn’t violate privacy of participants Naturalistic Observation Limitations

Preparing an Observation (p.369) Decide on type of observation Unstructured – document everything Data collection is difficult (writing everything down) Analysis is difficult Semi-structured – decide loosely which aspects of behavior will be documented Data collection is easier (writing relevant behavior only) Deep analysis and high detail Structured – decide strictly which behaviors will be documented Data collection is very easy but analysis is restricted to preset categories

Preparing an Observation Decide on type of notes to take Descriptive – observe and write down No inferences Girl is banging her head on a computer Inferential – comment on observations Inferences made about why behavior occurred Girl is banging her head on a computer because she is frustrated Evaluative – comment on behavior and evaluate Make a judgment about the behavior Girl banging her head does not have a positive relationships with computers

Conducting an Observation Establish rapport Remain aware of ethical conduct Remain objective Helps if you have multiple researchers Don’t come with built-in biases Biases could affect participant behavior Participant behavior is then unnatural Not ecologically valid Could result in selective perceptions Affects credibility (‘trustworthiness’) of data Take detailed notes Include info from several perspectives

After the Observation Can do post interviews Debrief participants (for overt) Analyze data (field notes) using grounded theory

Analyzing Data from Observational Studies Use grounded theory is a research method that involves forming a theory based on the gathered data (inductive) as opposed to gathering data after forming a theory (deductive). In other words, it kind of turns the whole research process around. Grounded theory is called 'grounded' because the theory is grounded in the data. Analyzing Data from Observational Studies

Analyzing Data from Observational Studies Grounded theory- three stages Describe Provide context Actions Intentions

Analyzing Data from Observational Studies Code and connect themes Organize into categories Necessary to compare data Reading field notes over and over Summarize analysis so readers can understand researcher’s reasoning Creating memos Look for higher-order (main) themes Then lower-order subthemes

Analyzing Data from Observational Studies Producing an account Written account of the analysis Explain overall theory of phenomenon Theoretical framework is ‘grounded’ in the categories that emerge during coding stage Use theoretical triangulation Ask participants if your interpretation is correct