Circuit Introduction The Flight Training Manual - Sections 12 and 13 Add References

Objectives To takeoff and follow published procedures that conform to the aerodrome traffic circuit, while avoiding conflict with other aircraft. To carry out an approach, and landing, using the most suitable runway.

Normally Left-hand at 1000 ft AGL The Circuit Normally Left-hand at 1000 ft AGL

Considerations – Takeoff Slipstream Torque Crosswind Headwind & Tailwind Power & Flap Surface Slope Runway Length

Effect greatest at high power and low airspeed Takeoff – Slipstream Effect greatest at high power and low airspeed

More Downward Pressure on Left Wheel Takeoff – Torque Yaw to the left Torque on aircraft Direction of prop rotation More Downward Pressure on Left Wheel More Drag on Left Wheel

Takeoff – Keeping Straight Use rudder to keep straight on reference points at the end of the runway If available – Use the runway centreline X

Keep straight on reference points Takeoff – Crosswind An aeroplane tends to weathercock into wind A crosswind from the left aggravates the swing created by slipstream and torque. A crosswind from the right may cancel out the swing. Keep straight on reference points

Takeoff – Wind Headwind Tailwind Aeroplane parked into wind blowing at 55kt Takeoff with tailwind requires groundspeed equal to wind speed just to bring airflow over the wing to a standstill. Will get airborne 5kt tailwind = 30% increase in take-off distance

Takeoff – Wind Headwind Tailwind Lower Groundspeed Higher Groundspeed Shorter Ground Roll Longer Ground Roll Steeper Climb Angle Shallower Climb Angle Improved obstacle clearance Reduced obstacle clearance Takeoff into wind for improved performance

Takeoff – Power & Flap Power: Flap: Use FULL Power to: reduces the takeoff roll and improves the climb performance Flap: Most Flight Manuals don’t recommend flap for takeoff. Reduces Ground Run, and Climb Performance Up to 10 or 1 Notch

Takeoff – Surface Smooth Surface (Sealed Runway) Accelerates to lift-off speed quicker Shorter Ground Run Rough Surface (Grass – Long &/or Wet, Gravel) Decreased Acceleration to lift-off speed Longer Ground Run

Takeoff – Slope Downslope: Assists takeoff, by helping the aircraft to accelerate faster Decreased the ground roll Upslope: Opposes takeoff, by resisting the aircraft’s acceleration Increases the ground roll

Takeoff – Runway Length

Takeoff – Runway Length

Considerations – Landing Wind Flap Power Brakes Runway Length

Where Possible Land into Wind Landing – Wind Where Possible Land into Wind Lower Groundspeed Shorter Landing/Stopping Distance Steeper Angle of Approach (Obstacle Clearance)

Landing – Flap 10°to 30°/ 1-2 notches Flap Lower Stalling Speed Lower Landing Speed Shorter Ground Run Increased Drag Steeper Angle of Approach Obstacle Clearance Lower Nose Attitude Better Forward Visibility 10°to 30°/ 1-2 notches Flap

Landing – Power Power Controls: Rate of Descent (ROD) Descent Angle Increased Slipstream = Controls More Effective Rudder, and Elevator (more significant) Glide Powered

Landing – Brakes Landing Used to slow the aeroplane, and/or bring it to a stop. Touch & Go DON’T USE THE BRAKES During takeoff and landing keep heels on the floor so as not to apply the toe brakes.

Landing – Runway Length

Wind Gradient Due to the friction caused by the Earth’s surface and obstacles on it, wind strength decreases as you get closer to the ground. Stand upright during a brisk wind, and then lie on the ground – compare the change in wind speed. Due to the loss of headwind component it will affect the flare – possible floating.

A sudden change in wind speed and/or direction Windshear A sudden change in wind speed and/or direction

Landing – Wind Shear Wind Shear can be very dangerous due to potential loss/gain of Airspeed. If Strong Wind Shear is suspected then abort the approach. Consider a higher approach speed and lower flap setting.

Windshear Check TAF and ATIS to compare 2000ft wind and surface wind. Wind needs to be 10kts or more If encountered it can result in a sudden drop in airspeed and/or altitude Go Around If windshear conditions are reported or suspected, increase approach and threshold speeds to counter any sudden drop in airspeed.

Aviate – Navigate – Communicate Airmanship Command Decision Making Aviate – Navigate – Communicate ATC Clearances Must be acceptable to the Pilot-in-Command (YOU when solo) Are you capable? Is the aeroplane capable? Weather? With in reason, if unacceptable, ask for an alternative clearance. A clearance must be complied with subject to the safety of the aircraft.

Airmanship Record Keeping LOOKOUT & LISTEN OUT Circuit Direction Kneepad (or similar) to record the ATIS, Flight & Taco Times, Fuel Endurance (Land By), Clearances, etc. LOOKOUT & LISTEN OUT Carryout a good LOOKOUT prior to entering the runway and while in the circuit. Listen Out and build up a mental picture of the circuit traffic. Correct radio calls – use the cheat sheets provided. Circuit Direction Windsock – Check before take-off and landing Follow aircraft already established in the circuit I’M SAFE

Airmanship – VFR Met Minima In a Control Zone (CTR) Day and Night Ceiling 1500ft Visibility 5km Special VFR (SVFR) Day Only Clear of Clouds Ceiling 600ft Visibility 1500m At an Aerodrome in Uncontrolled Airspace Ceiling Visibility Day 600ft 1500m Night 1500ft 8km

Airmanship – Right Of Way Rules The Onus is on You

Airmanship – Right Of Way Rules Head On Pass Port to Port Each aircraft turns to the right

Airmanship – Right Of Way Rules Taking-off or Landing vs Taxiing The taking off or landing aircraft has Right of Way The taxiing aircraft must Stop and Give Way

Airmanship – Right Of Way Rules Landing vs Taking Off The landing aircraft has Right of Way The taking off aircraft must Stop and Give Way

Airmanship – Right Of Way Rules Circuit vs Joining An aircraft established in the circuit has right of way. An aircraft joining must give way.

Airmanship – Right Of Way Rules Lower over Higher The lower aircraft has right of way The higher aircraft must Give Way

Airmanship – Right Of Way Rules Overtaking and Cutting In Maintain your position in the traffic sequence. Follow the aircraft ahead, don’t overtake or cut in.

Take-off Safety Brief The briefing is carried out before line-up. Intentions in the event of a malfunction during the take-off roll and an engine failure after take-off. Consider the conditions on the day: wind, runway-in-use, type of terrain off the end of the runway

Take-off Safety Brief “The wind is on the nose/from the left/right. For a malfunction before rotate: Close the Throttle Keep Straight, Brake as required, if required Turn into Wind For an engine failure after rotate: Lower the nose – 60kt/70kt Close the Throttle, Carb Heat ON/HOT Pick a paddock (runway), Flaps as required If time permits Trouble Checks (FMI), Shut-Down Checks (FMIM)”

Aeroplane Management Throttle Mixture Carb Heat Temps & Press Smooth Movements Mixture Rich Carb Heat On/Hot Below green range – 2000 RPM Off/Cold When runway assured Temps & Press Normal / Green Fuel Management Change tank after start up, and then every 30 minutes DI and Compass Orientate with the Runway

Human Factors Situational Awareness Traffic Situation: Look Out and Listen Out Build a mental picture Orientation to the Aerodrome: Reference points to track on Position in the circuit Weather: ATIS and ATC Reports Pilot Reports Observations – cloud, smoke etc., groundspeed

Human Factors Workload and Priorities Vision Information Processing Good communication, pre-flight and practice will minimise disorientation. Vision Reference features to turn on to are important Take note of landing cues and runway perspective (lined up for take-off) Information Processing Mnemonics and checklists ‘Overlearn’ checks Airborne checks off by memory Stress Relaxation techniques

Air Exercise – The Circuit Base Turn Downwind 45 Crosswind Base Leg Take-off Final Climb Out Landing

Air Exercise – The Takeoff Nose wheel straight and on centreline Check Compass and DI (bug) against the runway Select two reference points at the end of the runway

Air Exercise – The Takeoff Smoothly apply FULL power Heels on the floor (to avoid unnecessary use of brakes) Keep straight with rudder (Torque effect and Slipstream) Protect nose wheel with slight back pressure Check Static Power Check T&P Normal Check Airspeed Alive

Air Exercise – Climbing Out Attitude for the Climb Keep straight on reference point Check behind for tracking At safe height and airspeed (300ft AGL, 65kts) After takeoff checks Flaps Up, T’s & P’s Attitude for climb – re-trim At 400ft AGL, LOOKOUT Select a reference point under/in front of the wing tip for Crosswind At 500ft AGL turn – Max AOB 20º For separation – delay the turn

Air Exercise – Crosswind Check the aircraft is tracking 90° to runway Pick a Downwind reference point under/in front of the wing tip Lookout – especially for aircraft joining early Downwind When spacing correct (threshold at 45) – Turn Downwind 45

Air Exercise – Downwind Anticipate leveling out at Circuit Altitude/Height (1000ft AGL) May be on Crosswind, in the turn to or established Downwind A P T Reducing power to about 2200 RPM to achieve 90kt Should be tracking parallel to the runway – strut/wingtip spacing Groundspeed maybe high due to Tailwind Lookout and Listen out Downwind Call – Abeam upwind threshold Complete Pre-Landing Checks X

Air Exercise – Pre-Landing Checks B U M F H Brakes Undercarriage Mixture Fuel Hatches and Harnesses Pressure – Checked; Park Brake – Off Down and Locked (Welded) RICH On – Fullest Tank Fuel Sufficient – For a Go Around Pump – ON (if available) Pressure – Checked Hatches/Canopy – Locked Harnesses – Secure

Air Exercise – Base Turn Lookout Select a Base Leg Reference Point When threshold appears at 45 Carb Heat – On Power – 1500RPM Hold the nose attitude Level Turn – AOB 30 Speed in White Arc VFE C152 85kt / PA38 89kt Flap - 10/1 Notch Attitude for 70kt 45° X

Air Exercise – Base Leg Track on Reference Point Check Altitude – adjust with Power Check Speed – adjust with Attitude Trim C152 – select 20° flap, Attitude for 70kts - Trim Lookout – on Short and Long Final Anticipate the centreline 600ft AGL start turn onto Final – Max AOB 20 Finish turn not below 500ft AGL Continually Assess the approach

Air Exercise – Final Approach Select an Aiming Point Maintain the Aiming Point in a constant position in the windscreen Fly a Stabilised approach

Air Exercise – Final Approach Established on Final: Assess the Approach Centreline Altitude / Rate of Descent Airspeed Select 30°/Second notch of Flap Attitude for C152 60kts / PA38 65kts Trim Attitude controls Airspeed

Air Exercise – Final Approach Power to controls Rate of Descent/Approach angle Aiming point moves up the windscreen – increase power Aiming point moves down the windscreen – reduce power

Air Exercise – Final Approach Runway Perspective

Air Exercise – Final Approach Short Final Check the wind Clearance received to land or touch and go Check the runway is clear Landing assured – Carb Heat OFF/COLD Decision Point: Approach stable and landing assured? Yes = Continue No = Go Around

Level Off – Power Off – Hold Off Air Exercise – Landing Crossing the fence (landing assured) Transfer focus from the aiming point to looking down the runway Progressively raise the nose to round-out (flare) Simultaneously close the throttle As the aircraft sinks, increase the back pressure to hold off (float) Level Off – Power Off – Hold Off

Air Exercise – Landing Touch down on the main wheels Fly the nose wheel onto the ground Keep straight with rudder Apply Full Power to carry out a Touch and Go; or Brake as required to vacate the runway After landing checks

Touch and Go To save time and do more circuits. A normal landing followed by a normal takeoff, without stopping or braking. Carried out on runways with enough length to land, retract flap and takeoff again.

Air Exercise – Touch and Go A simple and logical extension of the landing roll Once nose wheel on runway: Raise flap (initially by the instructor) Apply FULL power Check Carb Heat – OFF Weight off the nose wheel Keep straight Note: Initially the Instructor will raise the flap and say “Flap Up”. Then apply the power On a short runway you may need to apply full power first