What Every School Needs to Know About Psychology Robert Barclay Academy Annual Conference 10th November 2016

Learning involves changes in long-term memory

A simple model of memory Source of image: belmontteach.files.wordpress.com Willingham, D. T. (2009). Why students don’t like school: A cognitive scientist answers questions about how the mind works and what it means for your classroom.

Working memory Long-term Memory Baddeley, A. (2003). Working memory: looking back and looking forward. Nature reviews neuroscience, 4(10), 829-839.

Limitations of working memory Limited capacity Involves conscious, effortful thinking Around 4 ‘chunks’ of information Easily overloaded Warning signs include incomplete recall failure to follow instructions place-keeping errors task abandonment Gathercole, S. E., Lamont, E. M. I. L. Y., & Alloway, T. P. (2006). Working memory in the classroom. Working memory and education, 219-240.

Reducing load on attention Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational psychologist, 38(1), 1-4.

Pairing graphics with words Two main pathways: Pairing graphics with words Blah blah blah blah … ba blah ba. Ba blah blah blah. Ba ba Blah … Blah blah blah blah … ba blah ba. Ba blah blah blah. Ba ba Blah … Pomerance et al (2016). Learning about learning: What every new teacher needs to know. National Council of Teacher Quality

Prior knowledge helps you learn “Students learn new ideas by reference to ideas they already know” “Each subject area has some set of facts that, if committed to long-term memory, aids problem-solving” Transfer to novel problems (e.g. critical thinking, analysis and evaluation) requires this knowledge to be available within long-term memory Without this knowledge, working memory risks becoming quickly overloaded Willingham, D. T. (2002). Ask the Cognitive Scientist Inflexible Knowledge: The First Step to Expertise. American Educator, 26(4), 31-33. Deans for Impact (2015). The Science of Learning. Austin, TX: Deans for Impact

Long-term memory Source of image: courses.lumenlearning.com

Long-term memory is organised into schemas A schema is a framework that helps organise and interpret information. A mental plan or set of instructions used to deal with new experiences. Requires minimal mental effort to apply a schema (but more influenced by bias and misconceptions) Example: Visiting a restaurant Source of image: www.clipartpanda.com

Memory is organised by meaning Didau, D. & Rose, N. (2016) What every teacher needs to know about psychology. John Catt

We find abstracts hard Rule is: If there is a ‘D’ on one side of the card, there must be a ‘3’ on the other. Which cards do you need to flip to test this rule? Rule is: If the person is having a beer, they must be over 18. Which drinkers would you check to ensure no underage drinkers? Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2012). An evolutionary upgrade of cognitive load theory: Using the human motor system and collaboration to support the learning of complex cognitive tasks. Educational Psychology Review, 24(1), 27-45.

Novices and experts cannot think in all the same ways Novices lack the schemas to easily integrate new information with their prior knowledge Experts' memories are organised differently than novices' Novices categorise problems based on superficial features of problems Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational psychologist, 41(2), 75-86. Deans for Impact (2015). The Science of Learning. Austin, TX: Deans for Impact

Forgetting Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. New York: Dover. Murre, J. M., & Dros, J. (2015). Replication and Analysis of Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve. PloS one, 10(7), e0120644.

Distributed practice ‘Forgotten’ material relearnt quicker and retained longer each time Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology. New York: Dover. Murre, J. M., & Dros, J. (2015). Replication and Analysis of Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve. PloS one, 10(7), e0120644.

Massed vs Spaced revision Encourage retrieval practice over time rather than promoting ‘cramming’ Roediger, H. L., & Pyc, M. A. (2012). Inexpensive techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1(4), 242-248.

Retrieval practice vs Re-studying Use low-stakes quizzing rather than re-studying to enhance learning Roediger, H. L., & Pyc, M. A. (2012). Inexpensive techniques to improve education: Applying cognitive psychology to enhance educational practice. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 1(4), 242-248.

Six ‘good bets’ from cognitive science

To help students take in new information: Pairing graphics with words. Young or old, all of us receive information through two primary pathways — auditory (for the spoken word) and visual (for the written word and graphic or pictorial representation). Student learning increases when teachers convey new material through both. Linking abstract concepts with concrete representations. Teachers should present tangible examples that illuminate overarching ideas and also explain how the examples and big ideas connect. Pomerance et al (2016). Learning about learning: What every new teacher needs to know. National Council of Teacher Quality

To help students remember what they’ve learned: Distributing practice. Students should practice material several times after learning it, with each practice or review separated by weeks and even months. Assessing to boost retention. Beyond the value of formative assessment (to help a teacher decide what to teach) and summative assessment (to determine what students have learned), assessments that require students to recall material help information “stick.” Pomerance et al (2016). Learning about learning: What every new teacher needs to know. National Council of Teacher Quality

To ensure that students connect information to deepen their understanding: Repeatedly alternating problems with their solutions and problems students must solve. Explanations accompanying solved problems help students comprehend underlying principles, taking them beyond the mechanics of problem solving Posing probing questions. Asking students “why,” “how,” “what if,” and “how do you know” requires them to clarify and link their knowledge of key ideas. Pomerance et al (2016). Learning about learning: What every new teacher needs to know. National Council of Teacher Quality

What makes a question ‘probing’?

So! Who can give me an evaluation point for Milgram’s experiment?

…

Classic ‘traps’ of questioning Not giving thinking time Over reliance on short answer recall questions Oversimplifying language as a response to difficulties Not probing the answers of weaker ability students Always using hands up – and allowing the same students to ‘rescue’ the question

General ‘good bets’ for questioning Ask a large number of questions Check the responses of all students Ask students to explain the process by which they came to an answer Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of Instruction: Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know. American Educator, 36(1), 12.

Tips for checking on all students Tell the answer to a neighbour Summarise the idea in one or two sentences (then share with a neighbour) Write the answer on a card or mini-whiteboard and hold it up Raise your hand if you know the answer (so you can see who doesn’t know) Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of Instruction: Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know. American Educator, 36(1), 12.

Handy question stems What is the main idea of ___ ? How are ____ and ____ different? In what way is ___ related to ___ ? What do you think causes ___ ? How does ___ link with what we learnt last lesson? [in response to a closed question] Great, but why is that true? Why do you think that? How do we know? Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of Instruction: Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know. American Educator, 36(1), 12.

Questioning is applied pedagogical content knowledge Coe, R., Aloisi, C., Higgins, S., & Major, L. E. (2014). What makes great teaching? Review of the underpinning research.

Influence on student outcomes http://www.aft.org/ae/spring2016/sadler-and-sonnert Sadler, P.M. & Sonnert, G. (2016) Understanding Misconceptions: Teaching and Learning in Middle School Physical Science. American Educator. Spring 2016

Probing questions for teachers Eric is watching a burning candle very carefully. After all of the candle has burned, he wonders what happened to the wax. He has a number of ideas; which one do you agree with most? The candle wax has turned into invisible gases. The candle wax is invisible and still in the air. The candle wax has been completely destroyed after burning. All of the wax has melted and dripped to the bottom of the candle holder. The candle wax has turned into energy. 17% 6% 8% 59% http://www.aft.org/ae/spring2016/sadler-and-sonnert 10% Which do you think was the most common student misconception? -- and why? Sadler, P.M. & Sonnert, G. (2016) Understanding Misconceptions: Teaching and Learning in Middle School Physical Science. American Educator. Spring 2016

Cognitive science in the classroom Didau, D. & Rose, N. (2016) What every teacher needs to know about psychology. John Catt Blog: evidenceintopractice.wordpress.com Twitter: @Nick_J_Rose