General overview of innate and adaptive immune responses to and regulation of black yeasts. General overview of innate and adaptive immune responses to and regulation of black yeasts. The innate immune response consists of complement proteins and diverse cellular components, including neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells. The adaptive immune response consists of antibodies, B cells, and CD4+ and CD8+ T-helper lymphocytes. CD4+ T-helper cells can differentiate into Th1 cells, Th2 cells, and Th17 cells. Only known activating and regulating mechanisms are indicated. Innate immune cells recognize black yeasts through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and other cell surface molecules, such as Toll-like and C-type lectin receptors. The PRRs recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), such as mannoproteins expressed on the surfaces of black yeasts. Neutrophils and macrophages lyse black yeasts through the production of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species. Macrophages phagocytose black yeasts through CD40 and BL-7. Mature dendritic cells and macrophages secrete IL-12 and IL-18 to promote the generation of Th1 cells secreting IFN-γ; IL-4 to induce differentiation of Th2 cells secreting IL-4, IL-5, and IL-10; and IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-23 to promote Th17 responses releasing IL-17 and IL-22. Adaptive immune cells are initially stimulated by MHC-II to recognize fungi and produce effective antibodies. Seyedmojtaba Seyedmousavi et al. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2014; doi:10.1128/CMR.00093-13