What should be protected and why? Environmental ethics What should be protected and why?

Aims To develop an understanding of environmental ethics by looking at what has moral value and the different interpretations of this which relate to the environment.

Key definitions Moral agents Those who have the freedom and rational capacity to be responsible for choices Those capable of moral reflection and decision. Example: adult humans of sound mind, infants and mentally infirmed adults are NOT moral agents.

Moral value You have moral value if: Your continued existence or welfare is valuable in itself (intrinsic value). Your interests and well-being must be weighed when deciding what is permissible to do. For example: humans of all kinds: babies, children, adults, old people, different races, different cultures, etc.

Moral duties Moral duties are: Duties which are owed by moral agents to those with moral value. For example: it is wrong to kill our children because we have a moral duty toward them.

Applying this to the environment Who or what has moral value, and why? Does the environment have moral value? Is there a difference between plants and animals? Individual plants and a whole landscape? What moral duty do we (as moral agents) have toward those with moral value? Different ethical positions suggest different moral duties.

Being human? What has moral value? Humans have a soul Humans are moral agents and are responsible for knowing right from wrong Humans are intelligent Humans have personhood and self-consciousness Humans have language.

Sentience? What has moral value? Human and non-human animals have sentience (the ability to feel pain). Therefore moral standing is extended to all humans and non-human animals.

What has moral value? Anything which is alive? Moral value will need to be extended to all plants as well as human and non-human animals. Therefore, all living things have moral value.

What has moral value? Being part of nature? Therefore we must extend moral value to the earth, ecosystems, rocks and rivers, as well as plants, human and non-human animals. Therefore, the entire natural world has moral value.

Ethical positions Anthropocentrism (Human centered morality): All and only humans have moral or intrinsic value. The rest of the natural world has instrumental value i.e. it is useful/ beneficial to humans. Instrumental value: We can best protect nature by catering for human needs. For example: saving rainforests provides medicines, oxygen and tourism for humans.

Ethical positions Sentio-centrism( sentient-being centered morality): All and only sentient beings have intrinsic and moral value. The rest of the natural world only has instrumental value. Both humans and non-human animals have rights and/or interests which must be considered.

Biocentric individualism (life-centered morality): Ethical positions Biocentric individualism (life-centered morality): All living beings have intrinsic and moral value. Humans are not superior to other life forms nor privileged, and they must respect the inherent worth of every living organism. Moral duties: Humans should minimise their interference with nature. For example: humans should be vegetarian because then less land needs to be cultivated with no livestock farming.

Ethical positions Eco-holism (ecosystem-centered morality i.e. Gaia): Everything on earth is interconnected and therefore, has moral or intrinsic value. Individuals must be concerned about the whole community of life/nature. Humans should strive to preserve ecological balance and stability.

Deep ecology (Deep Green Ecology): Ethical positions Deep ecology (Deep Green Ecology): Humans are deeply connected with nature. If humans identify with nature, then taking care of the natural world will become part of taking care of oneself. Life has value in itself (intrinsic value) independent of its usefulness to humans. The impact of humans on the world is excessive – we are only one species among many. We should ‘touch the earth lightly’.

Conservation ethics (Shallow Ecology): Ethical positions Conservation ethics (Shallow Ecology): Also known as Light Green Ecology = aims to preserve the environment. The conservation of the environment is a means to an end, i.e. it is beneficial to humans. For example: it improves/enhances our quality of life.

Bioregionalism: Ethical positions Lead a simple life with local production of food and other products by people that you know. Increases environmental awareness and caring decreases exploitation of the environment and people.

Religious approaches (Christianity): Ethical positions Religious approaches (Christianity): Creation has value because God created it and ‘God saw that it was good…’ Humans were given dominion over all creatures. Does this mean that we can exploit the environment for our own ends?

Religious approaches (Christianity): Ethical positions Religious approaches (Christianity): Stewardship The world belongs to God, and we are just caretakers. Humans are co-creators with God and need to use the world with care. The Fall showed that we are poor stewards and we need to make up for our past mistakes.

Religious approaches (Christianity): Ethical positions Religious approaches (Christianity): St Francis of Assisi suggested that God communicates with us through the natural world. The environment is inherently good, so all creatures have the ability to worship God, all are part of the same creation, and all have the same intrinsic value.

Ethical positions Religious approaches (Judaism): Every year at the new year festival of Rosh Hashanah Jews give thanks to G-d for the creation of the world. The world is G-d’s possession and the scriptures lay down clear rules for how it should be treated. Such as resting farm land once every 50 years so that it remains fertile.

Religious approaches (Judaism): Ethical positions Religious approaches (Judaism): Jewish respect for trees is shown in the annual festival of Tu B’Shevat (New year for trees). In Israel trees are planted as a way of reclaiming the desert.

Religious approaches (Hinduism): Ethical positions Religious approaches (Hinduism): Interconnectedness with the natural world is part of Hindu belief. The world is an aspect of God. Therefore, caring for it is a way of caring for God.

Religious approaches (Hinduism): Ethical positions Religious approaches (Hinduism): Modern India faces problems from pollution. This comes from both foreign and domestic industry, an increasing number of cars. An increasing population is putting added pressure on natural resources, such as land for building, fuel, food and water.

Religious approaches (Hinduism): Ethical positions Religious approaches (Hinduism): Belief in rebirth means that Hindus will be reborn into the world that is being damaged. Therefore, environmental concerns are immediate and have consequences for individuals themselves rather than future generations.

Religious approaches (Islam): Ethical positions Religious approaches (Islam): God (Allah) created the world and humans are only ‘trustees’ responsible for maintaining Allah’s creation. Muslims believe that they will be held accountable for how they have treated Allah’s creation.

Ethical positions Religious approaches (Islam): Muhammad (PBUH) taught that animals should be treated with respect. They should not be beaten or branded. He told a story about a prostitute who, on a hot day, took water from a well to give to a dog. For this act of kindness all of her sins were forgiven.