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Swedish Botanist, Physician, and Zoologist Carolus Linnaeus (aka Carl von Linné) Swedish Botanist, Physician, and Zoologist 1707 - 1778 Developed a hierarchical classification scheme do deal with over 12,000 species of organisms he grouped into plants and animals. We use the Linnaean system to this day (though we are moving away from it somewhat)! http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Carl_von_Linné.jpg

Taxonomy is also Hierarchial! The Organisms are Diverse: Taxonomy Domain Bacteria Archaea Eukarya Kingdom Eubacteria Gram + Protista (Chromista) Plantae Fungi Animalia Phylum Proteobacteria Eury-archaeota Phaeophyta Anthophyta Magnolio-phyta Basidio-mycota Chordata Class Gamma-proteobacteria -- Phaeo-phyceae Dicoty-ledonae Hymeno-mycetes Mammalia Order Entero-bacteriales Halo-bacteriales Fucales Rosales Agaricales Primates Family Entero-bacteriaceae Halo-bacteriaceae Fucaceae Rosaceae Agaricaceae Hominidae Genus Escherichia Halo-bacterium Fucus Rosa Agaricus Homo Species E. coli H. salinarum F. distichus R. multiflora A. bisporus H. sapiens Common DH5 Halophytic archaeon Rockweed Wild Rose Mushroom Human

How many organisms are there? What is a species? Animal species concept… if offspring are fertile then same species… does not apply to species of other kingdoms: Prokaryotes (no sex) Allopolyploidy in plants

Horses and Donkeys are separate biological species. Horse: Equus caballus Donkey: Equus asinus X http://www.fotosearch.com/comp/JNB/JNB002/00099924.jpg http://www.explorecrete.com/albums/album19/donkey.jpg http://www.muleranch.com/Clients/RedPeak-JerryHeitzlerMule.gif Mule: Sterile Hybrid Horses and Donkeys are separate biological species.

ONE biological species Coyote Canis latrans Canid morphospecies Wolf Canis lupus German Shepherd Dog Canis familiaris X X http://museum.utep.edu/chih/theland/animals/mammals/clatrans.jpeg http://www.ecores.uzhgorod.ua/Fotogalereya/fauna/Canis_lupus_01.JPG ONE biological species http://www.dog.com/breed/docgrafx/germshep.jpg http://www.city.west-lafayette.in.us/wlpd/coyredw.jpg Coydog http://www.leerburg.com/Photos/wolfdog-05.jpg Wolfdog Fertile Hybrids!

√ Homo sapiens Learn your own Latin binomial. Our genus means “self” not gender identity Our epithet: we think that we think! Our epithet always ends in ‘s’: One Homo sapiens is the instructor. There are many Homo sapiens in class. Italics in print, underscored in manuscript. I am a Homo sapiens. √

How many organisms are there? Good Question! Let’s exclude extinct species! Many extant are unknown so we estimate! Bacteria: 10,000 Archaea: 1,000 Protista: 20,000 (includes Stramenopila and Rhodophyta) Plantae: 285,000 (mostly flowering) Fungi: 110,000 Animalia: 1,400,000 (mostly arthropods) A 2017 DNA-based estimate puts the Earth tally at 8.7 million! The major part of the underestimate is likely single-celled organisms

Descent with Modification http://www2.biologie.uni-halle.de/zool/mol_ecol/Bilder/DarwinBild.jpg Charles Darwin - British Naturalist Formal Studies: Medicine and Theology 1809 - 1882 http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3e/Charles_Darwin_1854.jpg Descent with Modification 1880 The Power of Movement in Plants 1871 Descent of Man 1859 Origin of Species Species evolved from generation to generation over time 1831-1836 HMS Beagle Voyage http://www.omniscopic.com/blog/uploaded_images/darwin-791061.jpg

Notice the very large number of extinctions! Darwin’s Tree of Life (1859) the only figure in: On the Origin of Species future time present The Roman numerals each represent 1000 generations many more many more past time The letters A-L represent hypothetical progenitor species within a single genus Notice the very large number of extinctions! http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Darwins_tree_of_life_1859.gif

DOMAIN BACTERIA DOMAIN ARCHAEA DOMAIN EUKARYA Case study: Page 538-9 before nucleus true nucleus Turn back to the tree of life shown in Figure 1.6. Note that Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes, while Eukarya are eukaryotes. On the simplified tree below, draw an arrow that points to the branch where the structure called the nucleus originated. Explain your reasoning. DOMAIN BACTERIA DOMAIN ARCHAEA DOMAIN EUKARYA

In which direction is the axis of time shown? Page 7 Figure 1.6 In spite of this graphic image, and the highlighted point on the lower right, your book, like most others, is organized as if there were only two kingdoms (Plantae and Animalia), as if nothing happened since Linnaeus! DOMAIN BACTERIA Mycoplasma How is this graphic from your book the same, and how is it different from the other depictions of the “Tree of Life” you have seen so far? In which direction is the axis of time shown? The long list of organisms down the right are? Firmicutes Cyanobacteria Actinobacteria Spirochaetes Chlamydiae Bacteriodetes -Proteobacteria -Proteobacteria -Proteobacteria This node represents the common ancestor of all organisms alive today -Proteobacteria -Proteobacteria DOMAIN ARCHAEA Thaumarchaeota Crenarchaeota Korarchaeota This node represents the common ancestor of archaea and eukaryotes Euryarchaeota DOMAIN EUKARYA Slime molds Fungi Animals Choanoflagellates Fungi, animals, and plants are small branch tips on the tree of life Euglenids Parabasilids The three twigs highlighted on the tree are showing which level of modern Linnean taxonomy? Diplomonads Red algae Green algae Land plants Foraminiferans Ciliates Dinoflagellates Apicomplexans Water molds Diatoms Brown algae

Here is a phylogeny that only covers some of the animals: http://thehurricanes.deviantart.com/gallery/ http://thehurricanes.deviantart.com/art/Phylogeny-with-Spongebob-156909686

David Hillis’ tree of life based on total genome sequences (at the time) Eukaryotes Archaeons How many twigs would be on this diagram if ALL the extant organisms were shown? ? Prokaryotes Time Dimension? http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Tree_of_life_SVG.svg

Because this analysis is easier/faster, more species can be included! David Hillis’ tree of life based on rRNA sequence analysis (at press time) Rhodophyta Because this analysis is easier/faster, more species can be included! origin Stramenopila http://www.zo.utexas.edu/faculty/antisense/tree.pdf

“I’ll believe in Evolution when you Turn this Frog into a Bird!” Darwin’s cladogram showed 1000 generations between his Roman Numeral steps in time. The changes needed to evolve a frog into a bird would take too many frog generations for us to see it in one human lifetime. But what if we used an organism whose body is simple, whose life cycle is short (in minutes), and we focused on just one gene evolving? Show the Bacteria Evolution Video: https://youtu.be/plVk4NVIUh8 16

Darwin’s Four Postulates Darwin broke the process of evolution by natural selection into four criteria, or postulates Individuals in a population vary in their traits Some of these differences are heritable; they are passed on to offspring 17

Darwin’s Four Postulates In each generation, many more offspring are produced than can survive Only some will survive long enough to reproduce Some will produce more offspring than others Individuals with certain heritable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce Natural selection occurs when individuals with certain traits produce more offspring than do individuals without those traits The individuals are selected naturally, by the environment 18

Darwin’s Four Postulates Evolution is thus a logical outcome of the four postulates…notably at the population level of organization over generations…NOT within the lifespan of one individual! Modern biologists condense Darwin’s four steps into two statements: Evolution by natural selection occurs when: Heritable variation leads to Differential reproductive success 19

Time Distal elements and radius Ulna Humerus Tulerpeton (362 mya) Figure 22.4 Distal elements and radius Ulna Humerus Tulerpeton (362 mya) Acanthostega (365 mya) Figure 25.4 Transitional Features during the Evolution of the Tetrapod Limb. Tiktaalik (375 mya) Time Fin rays Eusthenopteron (385 mya) 20

Tetrapod Limb: Homologous Structures Table 22.1 Tetrapod Limb: Homologous Structures Humerus Radius and ulna Carpals Metacarpals Phalanges Figure 25.9 Structural Homology: Limbs with Different Functions Have the Same Underlying Structure. Turtle Human Horse Bird Bat Seal crawl type run arm-fly hand-fly swim 21

Human coccyx (vestigial tail) Figure 22.5 Spider monkey tail Figure 25.5 Vestigial Traits Are Reduced Versions of Traits in Other Species. Human coccyx (vestigial tail) 22

Gill pouch Gill pouch Gill pouch Tail Tail Tail Chick Human House cat Table 22.1 Gill pouch Gill pouch Gill pouch Figure 25.8 Developmental Homology: Structures That Appear Early in Development Are Similar. Tail Tail Tail Chick Human House cat 23

Click Here During Slide Show To Watch The Video! Figure 22.12 Medium ground finch (Geospiza fortis) Figure 25.15 Studying Evolution in Action on the Galápagos. Daphne Major Click Here During Slide Show To Watch The Video! 24

Darwin’s Four Postulates Evolution is a logical outcome of four postulates… populations have natural variation the organism’s features are heritable more offspring are produced than can survive some individuals produce more offspring because of the environment Modern biologists condense Darwin’s four steps into two statements: Evolution by natural selection occurs when: Heritable variation leads to Differential reproductive success 25

Did natural selection on ground Figure 22.13 Did natural selection on ground finches occur when the environment changed? Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought. No changes in beak characteristics occurred in response to a drought. Weigh and measure all birds in the population before and after the drought. Average 1976: Before drought N  751 (all birds on island) Figure 25.16 A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought). Number of finches 1978: After drought N  90 (survivors) Average beak depth in the population increased Beak depth (mm) Natural selection occurred. The characteristics of the population have changed. 26

Did natural selection on ground Figure 22.13 Did natural selection on ground finches occur when the environment changed? Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought. No changes in beak characteristics occurred in response to a drought. Figure 25.16-1 A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought). 27

Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought. Figure 22.13 Did natural selection on ground finches occur when the environment changed? Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought. No changes in beak characteristics occurred in response to a drought. Weigh and measure all birds in the population before and after the drought. Figure 25.16-2 A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought). 28

? Did natural selection on ground Figure 22.13 Did natural selection on ground finches occur when the environment changed? Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought. No changes in beak characteristics occurred in response to a drought. Weigh and measure all birds in the population before and after the drought. ? Average 1976: Before drought N  751 (all birds on island) Figure 25.16 A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought). Number of finches 1978: After drought N  90 (survivors) Average beak depth in the population increased Beak depth (mm) Natural selection occurred. The characteristics of the population have changed. 29

What statistical value is a measure of population variation? Figure 22.13 Did natural selection on ground finches occur when the environment changed? Beak characteristics changed in response to a drought. No changes in beak characteristics occurred in response to a drought. Weigh and measure all birds in the population before and after the drought. Average 1976: Before drought N  751 (all birds on island) What statistical value is a measure of population variation? Figure 25.16 A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought). Number of finches 1978: After drought N  90 (survivors) Average beak depth in the population increased Beak depth (mm) Natural selection occurred. The characteristics of the population have changed. 30

is natural variation evident? Figure 22.13 Average is natural variation evident? 1976: Before drought N  751 (all birds on island) Number of finches did the drought select individuals of better fitness for increased reproduction? 1978: After drought N  90 (survivors) Average beak depth in the population increased Figure 25.16-4 A Natural Experiment: Changes in a Medium Ground Finch Population in Response to a Change in the Environment (a Drought). Beak depth (mm) Natural selection occurred. The characteristics of the population have changed. 31

Darwin’s Four Postulates Evolution is a logical outcome of four postulates… populations have natural variation the organism’s features are heritable more offspring are produced than can survive some individuals produce more offspring because of the environment Modern biologists condense Darwin’s four steps into two statements: Evolution by natural selection occurs when: Heritable variation leads to Differential reproductive success 32

Bmp4 is a gene whose expression is shown by in situ hybridization: Figure 22.15 Bmp4 is a gene whose expression is shown by in situ hybridization: Lower Bmp4 expression (dark area) in embryo’s beak Higher Bmp4 expression (dark area) in embryo’s beak 2 mm 2 mm Deep adult beak Figure 25.18 Changes in Bmp4 Expression Change Beak Depth and Width. Shallow adult beak Geospiza fortis Geospiza magnirostris 33

Which dimension shows the progression of time? Figure 25.19 Bacteria Which dimension shows the progression of time? Archaea Last universal common ancestor (LUCA) Although two of the terminal groups are split, at what level of modern Linnean taxonomy are the five major groups shown? Flowering plants Mosses Figure 25.19 Evolution Produces a Tree of Life, Not a Progressive Ladder of Life. Tapeworms The branches on the tree represent the relatedness of populations. All of the species have evolved from a common ancestor. None is “higher” than any other Vertebrates Fungi 34