cohesion

discourse

a text - spoken or written - that is functioning for some purpose within some context discourse a discourse (text) usually consists of a number of sentences.

t e x t s e n t e n c e s c l a u s e s p h r a s e s w o r d s sounds

cohesion the linguistic “cement” we use to connect clauses and sentences in order to make our text cohesive

ellipsis - leaving words out cohesive devices referring expressions, e.g. pronouns substitution - replacing words with substitutes - one, do, so, not conjunctions ellipsis - leaving words out lexis - using words that are related - synonyms, antonyms, co-hyponyms etc adjacency pairs

categories of referring expressions personal pronouns e.g. he, she, it, they, them etc; demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, those; definite article the temporal expressions now, then locative adverbs here, there comparatives same, another, similar, different etc

referring expressions whereabouts is the meaning to which a referring expression refers? It could be: earlier in the text, e.g. The doctor crossed the road. He was in a hurry. referring expression anaphoric reference

referring expressions The meaning to which a referring expression refers could be later in the text, e.g. This is what I would like: a bowl of soup referring expression cataphoric reference

referring expressions The meaning referred to could be outside the text, e.g. I think I’m getting sunburnt. The sun is very hot today exophoric reference

referring expressions What would you like to eat? I’ll have a piece of that cheese! exophoric reference

summary of types of referring expressions (reference) text external (exophoric) text internal (endophoric) referring backwards (anaphoric) referring forward (cataphoric)

referring expressions in text Lilly’s grandmother told her a story. ‘Once upon a time,’ she said, ‘the ocean was filled with whales. They were as big as the hills. They were as peaceful as the moon. They were the most wondrous creatures you could ever imagine.’ Lilly climbed on her grandmother’s lap. ‘I used to sit at the end of the jetty and listen for whales,’ said Lilly’s grandmother. ‘Sometimes I’d sit there all day and all night. Then all of a sudden I’d see them coming from miles away. They moved through the water as if they were dancing.’

substitution There are a small number of words which we can use as substitutes for other words, phrases or even clauses. We use them to avoid repeating a word. so do one not

Don’t you think we could have a sandwich each? substitution substitute for a word = one Let’s have one while we’re waiting. Don’t you think we could have a sandwich each?

substitution substitute for phrases and clauses = not, do, so Are you coming? I don’t think so. Why not?

The boy should be back by now ellipsis This cohesive device is like substitution but what is substituted is Ø. Yes. I suppose he should ( ) The boy should be back by now

related words in any text, there are words that are related in some way, e.g. tall lanky short sandwich food synonymy antonymy hyponymy

a word about hyponymy food grain fruit meat vegetables superordinate apples bananas root leaf animal fish rice wheat carrot yam co-hyponyms hyponymy is the “kind of” relation, e.g. apples are a kind of fruit

lexical relations in text After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are softened with alkali and ^^ removed with steam. Next, they are sliced into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook faster but will become hard if they are over-cooked. The cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes them through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt. This helps to prevent them discolouring. synonymy; antonymy; hyponymy; repetition

potatoes strips cook softened steam skins over-cooked hard water (skins) blanched they cut them sliced meronymy repetition synonymy antonymy hypon part/whole kind of similarity opposite

cohesive conjunctions used to link sentences; can occur anywhere in a sentence – beginning, middle or end, e.g. Don’t go so fast! OK. We’ll be late though

conjunctive meanings conjunctions express different kinds of meaning, e.g. time - after, before, previously etc; cause - so, consequently, therefore, as a result etc addition – moreover, and, etc contrast – but, however, etc sequence – first, then, next etc

adjacency pairs question – answer; invitation – response; inform – acknowledge; greeting - response etc How are you? I’m well. How are you?

adjacency pairs these provide cohesion in spoken language; a serious break in cohesion occurs if the second part of the pair is not given, e.g. if an answer to a question is not provided. Do you like cheese?

coherence patterns of text organisation general – particular chronological simple – complex external – internal problem – solution question – answer cause – effect claim – counter claim

jokingly... In these jokes, watch for the confusion between the speakers This confusion arises because one makes the wrong assumption about what the other is referring to. Moral: Make sure your cohesive links are clear

Passenger: I have to be in Kuching at 5:45 on Sunday evening. How long does it take to fly there? Airline Clerk: Just a minute. Passenger: Thanks very much.

A: Time flies. You can’t. B: Why not? A: They fly too fast.

Teacher: Which month usually has 28 days? Student: All of them (The teacher left out ‘only’)

Do you like cleaning ladies? I don’t know. I’ve never cleaned one.

text i) After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are softened with alkali and removed with steam. Next, they are sliced into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook faster but will become hard if they are over-cooked. The cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes them through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt. This helps to prevent them discolouring. referring expressions;

text i) After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are softened with alkali and [the skins are] removed with steam. Next, they are sliced into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook faster but [they] will become hard if they are over-cooked. The cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes them through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt. This helps to prevent them discolouring. [ellipsis]; related words

text i) After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are softened with alkali and removed with steam. Next, they are sliced into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will cook faster but will become hard if they are over-cooked. The cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes them through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt. This helps to prevent them discolouring. conjunctions

text i) without using referring expressions and ellipsis After the potatoes have been washed, the skins are softened with alkali and the skins are removed with steam. Next, the potatoes are sliced into square-sectioned strips. Thin strips will be cooked faster but thin strips will become hard if thin strips are overcooked. The cut strips are blanched on a wire-mesh conveyor belt which passes the cut strips through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt. Passing the cut strips through a tank of hot water or a dilute solution of phosphate or citrate salt helps to prevent the cut strips discolouring.

text ii) The government has taken a practical, hands-on approach to an issue about which something had to be done, given the feedback from the parents of children who are suffering because of their problems with the subject. At the same time, it is trying to enhance the learning of the language among top students. The move is a courageous one because the issue is fraught with sensitivities. conjunctions lexical relation substitution exophoric reference cataphoric reference anaphoric reference