Chapter 8 Learning © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Learning: Chapter 8 Lecture Overview Conditioning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive Social Learning Neuroscience and Evolution © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Learning Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from practice or experience Learning can be unlearned Observation can lead to learning Learning requires an operational memory system © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Classical Conditioning Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive response Air puff produces an eye-blink Smelling a grilled steak can produce salivation The reflexive stimulus (UCS) and response (UCR) are unconditioned © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Classical Conditioning In classical conditioning, the CS is repeatedly paired with the reflexive stimulus (UCS) Conditioning is best when the CS precedes the UCS The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) after it is repeatedly paired with the UCS Eventually the CS will produce a response (CR) similar to that produced by the UCS © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Pavlov’s Experiment © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Analysis of Pavlov’s Study © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Conditioning of Emotional Responses John Watson documented that conditioning of emotional responses in the Little Albert study CS: a white rat UCS: a loud banging sound UCR: fear/startle response Eventually Albert exhibited fear of the white rat © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Conditioned Emotional Responses Conditioned Emotional Response: a classically conditioned emotional response to a previously neutral stimulus © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Examples of Classical Conditioning Other instances of learning conditioning of attraction in advertising Brand name (CS) + attractive model (UCS) => liking (UCR) aversion Flavor (CS) + illness (UCS) => flavor aversion (UCR) © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus Generalization: Learned response not only to the original stimulus but also to other similar stimuli Little Albert feared stimuli resembling rat Stimulus Discrimination: Learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli Pavlov’s dogs learned to discriminate between tones © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Extinction Pairings of the CS and UCS lead to conditioning whereas presentation of the CS only leads to loss of the conditioned response Extinction refers to loss of response to a CS presented without the UCS Extinction is not forgetting Extinction is useful in clinical situations Extinction of a phobia can be treated by exposure to the CS only © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Extinction © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Higher-Order Conditioning Higher-Order Conditioning: A neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with a previously conditioned stimulus (CS). Children learn to pair McDonald’s restaurant with food, and later learn that the two golden arches are a symbol for McDonald’s © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Higher-Order Conditioning © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life Prejudice Phobias Medical Treatments Advertising © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Classical Conditioning and Prejudice © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Operant Conditioning Organisms make responses that have consequences The consequences serve to increase or decrease the likelihood of making that response again The response can be associated with cues in the environment We put coins in a machine to obtain food But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is placed on the machine © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Key Aspects of Operant Conditioning In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue, it does not elicit the response Operant responses are voluntary In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in classical conditioning, the UCS elicits the reflexive response © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Key Terms of Operant Conditioning Reinforcement is any procedure that increases the response Punishment is any procedure that decreases the response Types of reinforcers: Primary: satisfy a biological need Secondary: have learned value © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Reinforcement/Punishment © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous: reinforcement occurs after every response Produces rapid acquisition and is subject to rapid extinction Partial: reinforcement occurs after some, but not all, responses Responding on a partial reinforcement schedule is more resistant to extinction © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Partial Reinforcement Schedules Ratio: schedules based on responses Fixed: every nth response is reinforced Variable: ratio varies unpredictably Interval: schedules based on time Fixed: interval is x in length (e.g. 1 min) Variable: interval varies unpredictably © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Reinforcement Schedules © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Shaping Shaping: Reinforcement is delivered for successive approximations of the desired response © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Side Effects of Punishment Increased aggression Passive aggressiveness Avoidance behavior Modeling Temporary suppression Learned helplessness © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Summary of Conditioning © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Applying Operant Conditioning Provide immediate and clear feedback Reinforcers and punishers should be presented as close in time to the response as possible Reinforcement and punishment must be consistent Feedback must follow subject’s behavior, not precede it © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Biofeedback Feedback allows for control of responses Most operant responses are voluntary motor system responses The autonomic nervous system (ANS) does not provide sufficient sensory feedback to the brain to allow for conscious control Biofeedback uses electronic devices to provide feedback and control of ANS function (e.g. skin temperature) © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Biofeedback © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Cognitive-Social Theory Cognitive-social theory: uses learning principles in combination with an emphasis on thought processes Observational learning refers to the notion that humans can learn through observation of models Requires attention to the model Involves cognitive abilities to organize and remember the modeled behavior Requires practice of the modeled behavior Person must decide to use the modeled behavior © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Cognitive-Social Learning Insight: Sudden understanding of a problem that implies the solution Kohler’s chimpanzees Cognitive Map: A mental image of a three-dimensional space that a person or animal has navigated Latent Learning: Hidden learning that exists without behavioral signs Tolman’s rats Scaffolding: A more experienced person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the student’s current performance level; combines shaping and modeling © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Neuroscience of Learning Learning involves changes in the brain Biochemical changes noted during learning include changes in the ability of neurons to release transmitters across the synaptic cleft Anatomical changes during learning include circuits within particular brain regions: E.g. the cerebellum plays a role in certain forms of classical conditioning (involving an eye blinking) © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Instincts Innate behaviors are inborn, emerge during certain periods, and are not the result of learning © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

Evolution and Learning Biological Preparedness: Built-in readiness to form associations between certain stimuli and responses Instinctive Drift: Conditioned responses shift (or drift) toward innate response patterns © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E