PSYC 2201 Personality Chapter 11 Outline for Weiten (2005) Bill Hill Kennesaw State University

Defining Personality An individual’s unique combination of attitudes, beliefs and behaviors. Personality is generally assumed to be Consistent Distinctive

Trait Approaches Characteristic behavior patterns (and ways of thinking) that are relatively consistent across similar situational contexts Traits are often described using common adjectives such as friendly, outgoing, moody, trustwothy, etc.

Trait Approaches The Five-Factor Model of Personality Traits (McCrae & Costa) Agreeableness Conscientiousness Openness to experience Extraversion Neuroticism Agreeableness: sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, straightforward Concientiousness: diligent, disciplined, well-organized, punctual, dependable Openness: curiosity, flexibility, imaginative, artistic, unconventional Extraversions: outgoing, sociable, friendly, assertive Neuroticism: anxious, hostile, self-conscious, insecure, vulnerable

Trait Approaches Contemporary Research on Traits Sensation-Seeking Self-Monitoring Sensation-Seeking: degree of preference for high v. low levels of sensory stimulation; 4 dimensions of sensation-seeking: risk seeking, experience seeking (novelty), degree of inhibition, susceptibility to boredom Effects related to sensation-seeking: importance of match to success of relationships; high more tolerant to stress, but more susceptible to problem behaviors (drinking, drug use, criminal behavior) Self-Monitoring: degree to which one attends to his or her social behavior and its impact on the impressions formed of them by others High self-monitoring: good actors, skilled self-presentation, skilled at reading others and spotting deception, more accurate judges of others’ personality, less readily make deep emotional commitment

Evaluating Trait Approaches Primarily descriptive model that does not adequately either explain why a behavior occurs or predict behavior Questions as to whether the Big Five Traits are too many or not enough NOTE: genetic/biological theories to be discussed later do provide some explanatory context for traits

Theories of Personality The major theories that we will discuss are primarily focused on identifying the origins of personality, not the relationship between personality and behavior. Personality theories are also key to understanding both the origins of abnormal behavior and the approaches to the treatment of abnormal behavior.

Theories of Personality The four basic theories of personality Psychodynamic Behavioral Humanistic Biological

Psychodynamic Theories All of these approaches originate from Freud and emphasize unconscious processes that influence traits and behaviors The basic element in common is conflict. The resolution of these conflicts between the individual and either unconscious or societal pressures, determines personality.

Psychodynamic Theories The Big Four Freud Jung Adler Erikson

Freud Basic assumptions underlying Freud’s approach to personality: Behavior (personality) is determined and controlled by unconscious factors Foundations for adult personality laid during childhood Primary role of sexual urges

Freud Structures of Personality Id Ego Superego It is the dynamic interaction between these three structures that results in observed behavior Id: innate, instinctive, pleasure principle (immediate gratification) Ego: decision-making mediator, reality principle (delaying gratification in the context of social realities) Superego: moral principles and social standards or right and wrong

Freud Levels of Consciousness Conscious Preconscious Unconscious Conscious: immediate awareness Preconscious: unaware but potential for awareness Unconscious: unaware, not going to be aware, but influential on behavior

Freud Stages of Personality Development Oral (mouth) Anal (anus) Phallic Oedipal Complex Penis Envy Latency Genital Each psychosexual stage has a is characterized by a sexual focus on a particular body zone. Oedipal: Erotic feelings for opposite-sex parent, hostility to same-sex Phallic: genital focus but involves parents Latency: focus on socialization beyond family Genital: sexual energy focus on opposite sex

Freud Defense Mechanisms Repression Projection Displacement Reaction Formation Regression Rationalization Identification Defense Mechanisms, which are largely unconscious, protect us from unpleasant emotions Repression: bury unpleasant thoughts in unconscious Projection: attributing thoughts, feelings to others Displacement: diverting emotional feelings from original source to substitute Reaction Formation: behaving opposite to true feelings Regression: reverting to child like behavior Rationalization: false but possible explanations for unacceptable behavior Identification: enhancing self-esteem through imagined or real connection with another NOTE: Review examples of defense mechanisms in text!!

What is the Defense Mechanism? John thought that almost everyone but himself was cheating on the psychology exam. Repression Projection Displacement Reaction Formation Regression Rationalization Identification Defense Mechanisms, which are largely unconscious, protect us from unpleasant emotions Repression: bury unpleasant thoughts in unconscious Projection: attributing thoughts, feelings to others Displacement: diverting emotional feelings from original source to substitute Reaction Formation: behaving opposite to true feelings Regression: reverting to child like behavior Rationalization: false but possible explanations for unacceptable behavior Identification: enhancing self-esteem through imagined or real connection with another NOTE: Review examples of defense mechanisms in text!!

What is the Defense Mechanism? Lisa was embarrassed when she kept forgetting her appointment with the dentist. Repression Projection Displacement Reaction Formation Regression Rationalization Identification Defense Mechanisms, which are largely unconscious, protect us from unpleasant emotions Repression: bury unpleasant thoughts in unconscious Projection: attributing thoughts, feelings to others Displacement: diverting emotional feelings from original source to substitute Reaction Formation: behaving opposite to true feelings Regression: reverting to child like behavior Rationalization: false but possible explanations for unacceptable behavior Identification: enhancing self-esteem through imagined or real connection with another NOTE: Review examples of defense mechanisms in text!!

What is the Defense Mechanism? Although Joan had not been close to her mother during her childhood she was now so oversolicitous of her mother’s health that her marriage was being threatened. Repression Projection Displacement Reaction Formation Regression Rationalization Identification Defense Mechanisms, which are largely unconscious, protect us from unpleasant emotions Repression: bury unpleasant thoughts in unconscious Projection: attributing thoughts, feelings to others Displacement: diverting emotional feelings from original source to substitute Reaction Formation: behaving opposite to true feelings Regression: reverting to child like behavior Rationalization: false but possible explanations for unacceptable behavior Identification: enhancing self-esteem through imagined or real connection with another NOTE: Review examples of defense mechanisms in text!!

What is the Defense Mechanism? Curt began assuming many of the behaviors and characteristics of the professor he most feared. Repression Projection Displacement Reaction Formation Regression Rationalization Identification Defense Mechanisms, which are largely unconscious, protect us from unpleasant emotions Repression: bury unpleasant thoughts in unconscious Projection: attributing thoughts, feelings to others Displacement: diverting emotional feelings from original source to substitute Reaction Formation: behaving opposite to true feelings Regression: reverting to child like behavior Rationalization: false but possible explanations for unacceptable behavior Identification: enhancing self-esteem through imagined or real connection with another NOTE: Review examples of defense mechanisms in text!!

What is the Defense Mechanism? After her new baby brother came home from the hospital the parents discovered Cheryl had dismembered her favorite doll. Repression Projection Displacement Reaction Formation Regression Rationalization Identification Defense Mechanisms, which are largely unconscious, protect us from unpleasant emotions Repression: bury unpleasant thoughts in unconscious Projection: attributing thoughts, feelings to others Displacement: diverting emotional feelings from original source to substitute Reaction Formation: behaving opposite to true feelings Regression: reverting to child like behavior Rationalization: false but possible explanations for unacceptable behavior Identification: enhancing self-esteem through imagined or real connection with another NOTE: Review examples of defense mechanisms in text!!

What is the Defense Mechanism? A student attributed his flunking out of the university to the poor quality of teaching there. Repression Projection Displacement Reaction Formation Regression Rationalization Identification Defense Mechanisms, which are largely unconscious, protect us from unpleasant emotions Repression: bury unpleasant thoughts in unconscious Projection: attributing thoughts, feelings to others Displacement: diverting emotional feelings from original source to substitute Reaction Formation: behaving opposite to true feelings Regression: reverting to child like behavior Rationalization: false but possible explanations for unacceptable behavior Identification: enhancing self-esteem through imagined or real connection with another NOTE: Review examples of defense mechanisms in text!!

What is the Defense Mechanism? Tommy began wetting his pants again after the birth of his baby brother. Repression Projection Displacement Reaction Formation Regression Rationalization Identification Defense Mechanisms, which are largely unconscious, protect us from unpleasant emotions Repression: bury unpleasant thoughts in unconscious Projection: attributing thoughts, feelings to others Displacement: diverting emotional feelings from original source to substitute Reaction Formation: behaving opposite to true feelings Regression: reverting to child like behavior Rationalization: false but possible explanations for unacceptable behavior Identification: enhancing self-esteem through imagined or real connection with another NOTE: Review examples of defense mechanisms in text!!

Jung Personal Unconscious Collective Unconscious Although also emphasizing the unconscious like Freud, he proposed different layers: Personal Unconscious Collective Unconscious Personal: same as Freud’s in that it is personalized and not available Collective: innate aspects from ancestral past that include archetypes (emotionally charged images that are universal in their meaning)

Adler’s Individual Psychology De-emphasizing the sexual focus of Freud, Adler believed the energy driving personality development is a striving for superiority Compensation Inferiority Complex Emphasis on social context (e.g., birth order) Striving for superiority = drive to adapt, improve, and master challenges Children initially feeling inferior to adults are motivated to acquire skills through process of compensation Inferiority Complex: exaggerated feelings of inadequacy caused by parental pampering or neglect Birth order: first born gets excessive attention and has problems when ”dethroned” by subsequent siblings. Mixed perspective on reality of bith order effects>

Evaluating Psychodynamic Approaches Vague and untestable Lack of objective supporting evidence Claims of sexism in Freud’s theory

Behavioral Approaches Premise from behaviorism that behaviors that constitute one’s consistent traits and actions are learned through behavioral principles of conditioning (operant and classical) and observational learning

Radical Behaviorism & Personality (Skinner) Internal processes omitted Focus is solely on environmental factors that shape and determine observed behaviors Personality (as defined by response tendencies) can easily change across one’s life

Social Learning Theory (Bandura) Although out of the behavioral tradition, Bandura incorporates cognitive influences Reciprocal Determinism Perspective that behavior tendencies are the result of an interaction between cognition, environment and observed behavior

Social Learning Theory (Bandura) Observational Learning Ability to imitate Role of the model Consequences of model’s behavior (Vicarious conditioning) Attention to model (higher when model liked or respected and seen as similar to observer) Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy: One’s belief about ability to actually perform behaviors that lead to desired/expected outcomes

Social Learning Theory (Mischel) Emphasized role of situational factors, thus raising questions as to whether behavior is consistent (person emphasis) or varies with one’s perception of the situational context Response choices are a function then of the person’s perception of the consequences associated with a response and consequence likelihood for the same behavior varies across situations

Evaluating Behavioral Approaches Question of application of fundamental principles developed through animal research to humans De-emphasis of role of cognitive factors and free will by radical behaviorists Lack of unifying structure of personality—it is simply characterized as set of acquired behaviors

Humanistic Approaches Key Elements: Emphasis on human uniqueness and potential for personal growth. As counterpoint to both Psychodynamic and Behavioral approaches, also includes strong emphasis on human free will Adopts phenomenological approach to understanding human behavior Phenomenological: focus on individual subjective experience as essential to understanding behavior

Person-Centered Theory (Rogers) Key personality construct is the self or Self-Concept, which is one’s collection of beliefs about who he or she is (often described using traits) typical behavior patterns

Person-Centered Theory (Rogers) Personality (self-concept) is largely developed as a function of childhood and adolescent experiences that are related to the interplay between an individual’s need for affection and acceptance and parenting practices. Conditional love Unconditional love

Person-Centered Theory (Rogers) Subjectively we try to maintain a match between our self-concept and our behavioral experiences. The degree of congruence (match) or incongruence (mismatch) between self-concept and experience that determines one’s mental health. Incongruence results in anxiety. In order to defend themselves against anxiety, people may engage in behaviors such as denial, reinterpretation of experience. Many of these behaviors are similar to the defense mechanisms delineated by Freud and also like Freud argued act to reduce anxiety. Rogers and Freud simply differ on the source of the anxiety that we are trying to reduce.

Self-Actualization Theory (Maslow) Hierarchy of Needs (Human Motivations) Physiological Safety & Security Belongingness & Love Esteem Cognitive Aesthetic Self-Actualization Physiological: hunger, thirst Safety & Security: long-term survival, shelter, income Belongingness & Love: friends, family, spouse Esteem: achievement, recognition by others Cognitive: knowledge, education Aesthetic: beauty, order Self-Actualization: ultimate achievement of personal potential For Maslow, the healthy personality is one that is self-actualized. Characteristics of the self-actualized person include: sensitivity to others, openness, spontaneity, feel good about self, objective (in tune with reality), not dependent on others, experience emotional highs.

Evaluating Humanistic Approaches Vague and untestable Lacks strong research base to support claims Idealized view of human nature that may be overly optimistic (e.g., Maslow’s self-actualized person)

Biological Approaches Basic premise is that personality tendencies (traits) may be genetically influenced

Biological Approaches (Eysenck) Eysenck’s theory combines elements from trait and behavioral approaches to personality Although basically a trait approach, his premise is that trait tendencies are genetically determined. Actual observed traits are then shaped through conditioning.

Biological Approaches (Eysenck) Eysenck’s Fundamental Traits Extraversion-Introversion Neuroticism Psychoticism Extraversion: sociable, active, assertive; Introversion the opposite, but also possible they have higher levels of arousal, making them more easily conditioned resulting in higher likelihood of acquiring conditioned inhibitions Neuroticism: anxious, moody, tense, low self-esteem Psychoticism: egocentric, cold, impulsive, antisocial

Behavioral Genetics Evidence that suggests personality traits are inherited: Twin studies Variability in personality traits despite shared family environment Possibility of detecting specific genes related to traits Correlations on the Big Five Traits higher between identical than fraternal twins, with heritability estimates between 40% and 58% Preliminary findings from gene mapping have suggested a possible gene related to “novelty-seeking”; a tendency toward impulsivity, excitability, exploration)

Evolutionary Perspectives Traits, such as the Big Five, have emerged through natural selection. Supporting evidence includes: Cross-cultural consistency in the Big Five Adaptive viability of the Big Five for survival

Evaluating Biological Approaches Limitations on accuracy of heritability ratios Fails to adequately address the interaction between nature and nurture No unifying theory

Culture & Personality Cultural and sociohistorical factors have influenced many of the major theories discussed, particularly the Psychodynamic and Humanistic approaches. What may be characterized as a personality ideal in one culture is not necessarily to same in another. NOTE: Although research shows cross-cultural support for the Big Five, it does not mean that all cultures value the same position on each of the Big Five Dimensions

Culture & Personality Variations in Self-Concept Western Ideal: independent self Asian Ideal: interdependent self Western: strong boundary between self and others, which results in descriptions of self that emphasize unique traits and abilities that differentiate them from others (e.g., possessions, abilities, accomplishments) Asian: emphasis on interconnectedness, personality traits characterized by group membership, relationships

Imagine that several psychologists are having lunch together, and that you are eavesdropping on their conversation. Which type of psychologist is MOST likely to have made each of these comments? Aggression is a human instinct. Although society may control it somewhat, we can never eliminate it. Humanistic Biological/evolutionary Psychoanalytic Behavioral

Imagine that several psychologists are having lunch together, and that you are eavesdropping on their conversation. Which type of psychologist is MOST likely to have made each of these comments? Your student may be under a lot of pressure, but that is no excuse for cheating. We are personally responsible for what we do. Humanistic Biological/evolutionary Psychoanalytic Behavioral

Imagine that several psychologists are having lunch together, and that you are eavesdropping on their conversation. Which type of psychologist is MOST likely to have made each of these comments? There are not any values inherent in human nature. Values are acquired in the same way we learn to say “please” and “thank you.” Humanistic Biological/evolutionary Psychoanalytic Behavioral

Imagine that several psychologists are having lunch together, and that you are eavesdropping on their conversation. Which type of psychologist is MOST likely to have made each of these comments? People just don’t want to believe that infants get sexual pleasure from sucking and exploring anything they get in their hands with their mouth. Humanistic Biological/evolutionary Psychoanalytic Behavioral