Ferment in the Middle East: The Rise of Islam Chapter 7 Ferment in the Middle East: The Rise of Islam

Muhammad rises to heaven. p183

I. The Rise of Islam A. The Role of Muhammad B. The Teachings of Muhammad

The Ka’aba in Mecca. The Ka’aba, the shrine containing a black meteorite in the Arabian city of Mecca, is the most sacred site of the Islamic faith. Wherever Muslims pray, they are instructed to face Mecca; each thus becomes a spoke of the Ka’aba, the holy center of the wheel of Islam. All Muslims are encouraged to visit the Ka’aba at least once in their lifetime if they are able to do so. Called the hajj, this pilgrimage to Mecca represents the ultimate in spiritual fulfillment. p184

MAP 7. 1 The Middle East in the Time of Muhammad MAP 7.1 The Middle East in the Time of Muhammad. When Islam began to spread throughout the Middle East in the early seventh century, the dominant states in the region were the Roman Empire in the eastern Mediterranean and the Sassanian Empire in Persia. Figure 7-1 p185

Hamza, Muhammad’s uncle (left, played by Anthony Quinn), is shown defending Muhammad’s followers in the early years of Islam. p186

II. The Arab Empire and Its Successors A. Creation of an Empire B. The Rise of the Umayyads C. The Abbasids 1. Abbasid Rule 2. Instability and Division 3. The Seljuk Turks D. The Crusades

II. The Arab Empire and Its Successors E. The Mongols F. Andalusia: A Muslim Outpost in Europe 1. A Time of Troubles 2. Moorish Spain: An Era of “Cultural Tolerance”?

MAP 7. 2 The Expansion of Islam MAP 7.2 The Expansion of Islam. This map traces the expansion of the Islamic faith from its origins in the Arabian peninsula. Muhammad’s followers carried the religion as far west as Spain and southern France and eastward to India and Southeast Asia. Figure 7-2 p190

MAP 7. 3 The Abbasid Caliphate at the Height of Its Power MAP 7.3 The Abbasid Caliphate at the Height of Its Power. The Abbasids arose in the eighth century as the defenders of the Muslim faith and established their capital at Baghdad. With its prowess as a trading state, the caliphate was the most powerful and extensive state in the region for several centuries. The ‘‘Zaidi imams’’ indicated on the map were a group of dissident Shi’ites who established an independent kingdom on the southern tip of the Arabian peninsula. Figure 7-3 p191

The Great Mosque of Samarra The Great Mosque of Samarra. The ninth-century mosque of Samarra, located north of Baghdad in present-day Iraq, is the largest mosque in the Islamic world. Rising from the center of the city of Samarra, the capital of the Abbasids for over half a century and one of the largest cities of its time, the imposing tower shown here is 156 feet in height. Its circular ramp may have inspired artists in medieval Europe as they imagined the ancient cultures of Mesopotamia. Although the mosque is now in ruins, its spiral tower still signals the presence of Islam to the faithful across the broad valley of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. p192

MAP 7. 4 The Turkish Occupation of Anatolia MAP 7.4 The Turkish Occupation of Anatolia. This map shows the expansion of Turkic-speaking peoples into the Anatolian peninsula. The Seljuk Turks seized much of the peninsula after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. In the late thirteenth century, Seljuk power collapsed and was replaced by another Turkic-speaking people, the Ottoman Turks, who began to consolidate their power in the northwestern part of Anatolia. The Ottomans established their capital at Bursa in 1335 and eventually at Constantinople in 1453 (see Chapter 16) Figure 7-4 p193

COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION The Medieval Castle COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION The Medieval Castle. Beginning in the eighth century, Muslim rulers began to erect fortified stone castles in the desert. So impressed were the crusaders by the innovative defenses that they began to incorporate similar features in their own European castles, which had previously been made of wood. In twelfth-century Syria, the crusaders constructed the imposing citadel known as the Krak des Chevaliers (Castle of the Knights) on the foundation of a Muslim fort (left photo). This new model of a massive fortress of solid masonry spread to western Europe, as is evident in the castle shown in the right photo, built in the late thirteenth century in Wales. p194

COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION The Medieval Castle COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION The Medieval Castle. Beginning in the eighth century, Muslim rulers began to erect fortified stone castles in the desert. So impressed were the crusaders by the innovative defenses that they began to incorporate similar features in their own European castles, which had previously been made of wood. In twelfth-century Syria, the crusaders constructed the imposing citadel known as the Krak des Chevaliers (Castle of the Knights) on the foundation of a Muslim fort (left photo). This new model of a massive fortress of solid masonry spread to western Europe, as is evident in the castle shown in the right photo, built in the late thirteenth century in Wales. p194

Spain in the Eleventh Century

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III. Islamic Civilization A. Political Structures B. The Wealth of Araby: Trade and Cities in the Middle East

III. Islamic Civilization C. Islamic Society D. The Culture of Islam 1. Philosophy and Science 2. Islamic Literature 3. Islamic Art and Architecture

The Alhambra in Granada The Alhambra in Granada. Islamic civilization reached its zenith with the fourteenth-century castle known as the Alhambra, in southern Spain (left). Like the Hindus in India, the Muslims of the Middle East and Spain lived in a hot, dry climate, making water a highly prized commodity both literally and psychologically. The quiet, refreshing coolness of water became a vital component of Muslim architecture, displayed in magnificent gardens featuring fountains and reflecting pools such as this one at the Alhambra (below). p198

The Alhambra in Granada The Alhambra in Granada. Islamic civilization reached its zenith with the fourteenth-century castle known as the Alhambra, in southern Spain (left). Like the Hindus in India, the Muslims of the Middle East and Spain lived in a hot, dry climate, making water a highly prized commodity both literally and psychologically. The quiet, refreshing coolness of water became a vital component of Muslim architecture, displayed in magnificent gardens featuring fountains and reflecting pools such as this one at the Alhambra (below). p198

Arab traders in a caravan. p200

The Stone Palaces of Medieval Yemen The Stone Palaces of Medieval Yemen. One of the earliest cities on the ancient trade route through the Arabian peninsula was Sana, the capital of modern-day Yemen. By the thirteenth century, residents of this important mercantile metropolis were building beautiful houses out of hand-cut stones and mudbricks. Covered with a layer of traditional plaster, the facades were well insulated against the wide fluctuations characteristic of desert temperatures. Because of Yemen’s relative isolation in the contemporary Middle East, Sana has escaped the worst examples of urban renewal and is now undergoing a vigorous preservation program. Yemeni artisans, proud of their unique architecture, are restoring the country’s medieval palaces, such as this one with its translucent alabaster windows and elaborate horizontal decorations. p201

Preserving the Wisdom of the Greeks Preserving the Wisdom of the Greeks. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the philosophical works of ancient Greece were virtually forgotten in Europe or were banned as heretical by the Byzantine Empire. It was thanks to Muslim scholars, who stored copies and translations in libraries in Baghdad, Alexandria, and elsewhere in the Arab world, that many Classical Greek writings survived. Here young Muslim scholars are being trained in the Greek language so that they can translate Classical Greek literature into Arabic. Later the works were translated back into Western languages and served as the catalyst for an intellectual revival in medieval and Renaissance Europe. p203

COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION A Twelfth-Century Map of the World COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION A Twelfth-Century Map of the World. The twelfth-century Muslim geographer Al-Idrisi received his education in the Spanish city of Coｫrdoba while it was under Islamic rule. Later he served at the court of the Norman king of Sicily, Roger II, where he created an atlas of the world based on Arab and European sources. In Muslim practice at the time, north and south were inverted from modern practice. Al-Idrisi’s map, shown above, depicts the world as it was known at that time, stretching from the Spanish peninsula on the right to the civilization of China on the far left. It is also a testimonial to the vast extension of the power and influence of Islam in the five centuries since the death of Muhammad in 632. Maps drawn by Al-Idrisi’s European contemporaries were still highly stylized, with the Christian holy city of Jerusalem placed at the center of the world, as in the map shown at the left. p204

COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION A Twelfth-Century Map of the World COMPARATIVE ILLUSTRATION A Twelfth-Century Map of the World. The twelfth-century Muslim geographer Al-Idrisi received his education in the Spanish city of Coｫrdoba while it was under Islamic rule. Later he served at the court of the Norman king of Sicily, Roger II, where he created an atlas of the world based on Arab and European sources. In Muslim practice at the time, north and south were inverted from modern practice. Al-Idrisi’s map, shown above, depicts the world as it was known at that time, stretching from the Spanish peninsula on the right to the civilization of China on the far left. It is also a testimonial to the vast extension of the power and influence of Islam in the five centuries since the death of Muhammad in 632. Maps drawn by Al-Idrisi’s European contemporaries were still highly stylized, with the Christian holy city of Jerusalem placed at the center of the world, as in the map shown at the left. p204

The Dome of the Rock. One of the first architectural structures in the Islamic world, as well as one of the finest, the Dome of the Rock is topped with an opulent golden dome that still dominates the skyline of Jerusalem. Built by seventh-century artisansproficient in the Byzantine style, it boasts colored marble columns, glass and tile mosaics, and inscriptions from the Qur’an. Beneath the structure is a rock reputed to be the site of Adam’s burial place, as well as the spot where Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son as recounted in the Bible. According to Muslims, the Prophet Muhammad began his night journey to heaven here. This magnificent building symbolizes the presence of Islam in a city historically identified with Judaism and Christianity. p208

The Recycled Mosque. The Great Mosque at Coｫrdoba was erected on the site of a Christian church built by the Visigoths. Earlier the same site had been dedicated to the Roman god Janus. In the eighth century, the Muslims incorporated parts of the Visigothic church into their new mosque, aggrandizing it over the centuries. After the Muslims were driven from Spain, the mosque reverted to Christianity, and in 1523, a soaring cathedral sprouted from its spine (shown below). Inside, the mosque and the cathedral seem to blend well aesthetically, a prototype for harmonious religious coexistence. Throughout history, societies have all too often destroyed past architectural wonders, robbing older marble glories to erect new marvels. It is rare and wonderful that the Great Mosque has survived with its glittering dome towering above the mihrab chamber (shown in the upper photo). p209

The Recycled Mosque. The Great Mosque at Coｫrdoba was erected on the site of a Christian church built by the Visigoths. Earlier the same site had been dedicated to the Roman god Janus. In the eighth century, the Muslims incorporated parts of the Visigothic church into their new mosque, aggrandizing it over the centuries. After the Muslims were driven from Spain, the mosque reverted to Christianity, and in 1523, a soaring cathedral sprouted from its spine (shown below). Inside, the mosque and the cathedral seem to blend well aesthetically, a prototype for harmonious religious coexistence. Throughout history, societies have all too often destroyed past architectural wonders, robbing older marble glories to erect new marvels. It is rare and wonderful that the Great Mosque has survived with its glittering dome towering above the mihrab chamber (shown in the upper photo). p209

The Qur’an as Sculptured Design The Qur’an as Sculptured Design. Muslim sculptors and artists, reflecting the traditional view that any visual representation of the Prophet Muhammad was blasphemous, turned to geometric patterns, as well as to flowers and animals, as a means of fulfilling their creative urges. The predominant motif, however, was the reproduction of Qur’anic verses in the Arabic script. Calligraphy, which was almost as important in the Middle East as it was in traditional China, used the Arabic script to decorate all of the Islamic arts, from painting to pottery, tile and ironwork, and wall decorations such as this carved plaster panel in a courtyard of the Alhambra palace in Spain. Since a recitation from the Qur’an was an important component of the daily devotional activities for all practicing Muslims, elaborate scriptural panels such as this one perfectly blended the spiritual and the artistic realms. p210

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