LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 15 A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT Peers and the Sociocultural Word John W. Santrock

Peers and the Sociocultural World Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Friendship Play and Leisure Aging and the Social World Sociocultural Influences

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Peer Group Functions Peers — individuals about the same age or maturity level Peer groups provide source of information and comparison about world outside the family Peer influences and evaluations can be negative or positive

Parent Influences on Peer Relations Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Parent Influences on Peer Relations Choice of neighborhoods, churches, schools Recommend strategies to handle disputes or become less shy Encourage children to be tolerant or resist peer pressure Provide emotional base from which to explore peer relations

Developmental Changes Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Developmental Changes Early Childhood Frequency of peer interaction increases Middle/Late Childhood Children spend increasing time in peer interaction Average time spent 10% of time spent with peers at age 2 20% of time spent with peers at age 4 40% of time spent with peers during ages 7-11

Social Cognition Thoughts about social matters Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Social Cognition Thoughts about social matters Perspective-taking — taking another’s point of view In elementary school, peer interaction and perspective-taking ability increase Promotes effective communication skills Social Knowledge Social Information-Processing Skills

Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Peer Statuses Frequently nominated as a best friend; rarely disliked by peers Popular Receive average number of positive and negative nominations from peers Average Infrequently nominated as a best friend but not disliked by peers Neglected Infrequently nominated as a best friend; actively disliked by peers Rejected Frequently nominated as someone's best friend and as being disliked Controversial

Bullying Physical or verbal behavior with harmful intent Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Bullying Physical or verbal behavior with harmful intent Significant numbers victimized Boys and younger middle school students Victims of bullies reported more loneliness and difficulty in making friends Those who did the bullying more likely to have low grades, smoke and drink alcohol

Bullying Behaviors Among U.S. Youth Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Bullying Behaviors Among U.S. Youth Fig. 15.2

Bullying To reduce bullying Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Bullying To reduce bullying Older peers serve as monitors and intervene Develop school-wide rules and sanctions Form friendship groups for victims Spread anti-bullying message to community Parents reinforce and model positive behaviors Identify bullies and victims early Provide professional help for bully and victim

Gender and Peer Relations Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Gender and Peer Relations Gender composition From age 3, children prefer same-sex groups Group size From age 6, boys prefer larger groups Interaction in same-sex groups Boys: organized group games, rough-and-tumble Girls: collaborative discourse

Adolescent Peer Relations Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Adolescent Peer Relations Peers play powerful roles Focus of relations — to be liked and included Peer pressure and conformity Pressure to conform to standards — can be positive or negative

Conformity to Antisocial Peer Standards Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Conformity to Antisocial Peer Standards Fig. 15.4

Cliques and Crowds Cliques Crowds Average 5 to 6 people Friendship Cliques and Crowds Cliques Average 5 to 6 people Usually same sex, age Formed from shared activities, friendship Crowds Larger than cliques Usually formed based on reputation May not spend much time together

Dunphy’s Progression of Peer Group Relations in Adolescence Peer Relations in Childhood and Adolescence Dunphy’s Progression of Peer Group Relations in Adolescence Fig. 15.5

Six Functions of Friendship Companionship Stimulation Physical support Ego support Social comparison Intimacy/affection intimacy in friendship — self-disclosure and sharing of private thoughts

Friendship during Childhood Children use friends as cognitive and social resources Not all friends and friendships are equal Supportive friendships advantageous Coercive, conflict-ridden friendships not Friends generally similar — age, sex, ethnicity, and many other factors

Strategies for Making Friends Friendship Strategies for Making Friends Appropriate Initiate interaction Be nice Behave prosocially Show respect Give social support Inappropriate Be psychologically aggressive Present oneself negatively Behave antisocially

Friendship during Adolescence Need for intimacy intensifies Quality of friendship more strongly linked to feelings of well-being Important sources of support Mixed-age friendships Friends are active partners in building a sense of identity

Developmental Changes in Self-Disclosing Conversations Friendship Developmental Changes in Self-Disclosing Conversations Fig. 15.6

Friendship during Adolescence Girls more intimate with friends than boys More risk of delinquent behavior when friends are older Early maturers more at risk for delinquent behavior Early maturing girls formed friendships with older girls who were biologically similar

Adult Friendship Family relationships are obligatory, ascribed Cannot choose to replace parents and siblings Family members from different generations Friendship optional, chosen Can select and replace friends Friends are often similar in age

Adult Friendship Gender Differences Women More close friends More intimate; talk more Men More competitive Engage in activities, especially outdoors More cross-gender friendships than childhood but still prefer same-gender

Friendship in Late Adulthood Important role; tend to narrow social network Choose close friends over new friends Friends replace distant family Gender differences Women: more depressed without a best friend; no change in desire for friends Men: decreased desire for new and close friends in older adulthood

Childhood Functions of play Health Affiliation with peers Play and Leisure Childhood Functions of play Health Affiliation with peers Cognitive development Exploration Tension release, master anxiety and conflicts Play therapy

Parten’s Classic Study of Play Play and Leisure Parten’s Classic Study of Play Onlooker Parallel Solitary Unoccupied Child not engaging in play as commonly understood; might stand in one spot Associative Cooperative Child watches other children play Child plays separately from others, but in manner that mimics their play Play that involves social interaction with little or no organization Play that involves social interaction in group with sense of organized activity Child plays alone, independently of others

Types of Play Pretense/ Symbolic Social Practice Sensorimotor Play and Leisure Types of Play Pretense/ Symbolic Social Practice Sensorimotor Infants derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor schemes Games Repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned Activities engaged in for pleasure; include rules Occurs when child transforms physical environment into symbol Involves social interactions with peers

Play and Leisure Leisure Pleasant times after work or school when individuals are free to pursue activities and interests of their choosing U.S. adolescents spend more time than those in other countries Most time in unstructured leisure activities Most time in voluntary structured activities

Play and Leisure Leisure in Adulthood Many adults view leisure as boring and unnecessary Mid-life changes may produce expanded opportunities for leisure Adults at midlife need to begin preparing psychologically for retirement

Social Theories of Aging Aging and the Social World Social Theories of Aging To cope effectively, older adults should gradually withdraw from society Disengagement theory The more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they are to be satisfied with their lives Activity theory Social breakdown-reconstruction theory Breakdown begins by negative views of older adults, ends by labeling self; social reconstruction brought about by viewing older adults as competent

Stereotyping of Older Adults Aging and the Social World Stereotyping of Older Adults Ageism — prejudice against other people because of age, especially prejudice against older adults Personal consequences of negative stereotyping can be serious

Social Support and Social Integration Aging and the Social World Social Support and Social Integration Social convoy model of social relations — go through life embedded in personal network of individuals that give social support Helps those of all ages cope Improves mental and physical health Linked to reduced symptoms of disease Linked to longevity Emotionally positive contact lowers depression

The Stress of Caring for Older Adults Aging and the Social World The Stress of Caring for Older Adults Individuals with long-term caregiving responsibilities are at risk for Clinical depression Compromised immune systems

Aging and the Social World Successful Aging Many abilities maintained or even improved as we get older Being active Perceived control over the environment

Sociocultural Influences Culture Behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation Ethnocentrism — tendency to favor one’s own group over other groups Global interdependence is inescapable reality All are citizens of the world Better understanding effective interactions

Individualism and Collectivism Sociocultural Influences Individualism and Collectivism Individualism — giving priority to personal goals rather than to group goals; emphasizing values that serve the self Collectivism — emphasizing values that serve the group by subordinating personal goals to preserve group integrity, interdependence of members, and harmonious relationships

American and Chinese Self-Conceptions Sociocultural Influences American and Chinese Self-Conceptions Fig. 15.9

Sociocultural Influences Rites of Passage Ceremonies or rituals that mark an individual’s transition from one status to another, especially into adulthood Some are elaborate Some are abrupt entry into adulthood Religious and social groups use initiations

Seven factors most likely to predict high status for elderly Sociocultural Influences Seven factors most likely to predict high status for elderly High-status elders Have valuable knowledge Control key family or community resources Permitted to engage in useful, valued functions Have role continuity throughout the life span Have age-related role changes with greater responsibility, etc. Extended family is common family type Are more collectivistic than individualistic

What Is Socioeconomic Status? Sociocultural Influences What Is Socioeconomic Status? SES Grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics Number depends on community’s size, complexity Low SES and middle SES Each could have many subcategories SES variations in neighborhoods, schools

Socioeconomic Variations in Families Sociocultural Influences Socioeconomic Variations in Families Higher SES parents: Develop children’s initiative and delay gratification Create home atmosphere in which children are more nearly equal participants Less likely to use physical punishment Less directive; more conversational with children Neighborhood variation affects child development

Psychological Ramifications of Poverty Sociocultural Influences Psychological Ramifications of Poverty Powerlessness Vulnerable to disaster Alternatives are restricted Less prestige Lower quality home environments for children

Who is Poor? Women — feminization of poverty Families and poverty Sociocultural Influences Who is Poor? Women — feminization of poverty 1/3 of single mothers; 10% of single fathers Families and poverty Economic pressure linked with parenting Benefits to parents help children Poverty, aging, and ethnicity 10-12% overall, more among women and ethnic minorities

Sociocultural Influences Percentage of Youth Under 18 Who are Living in Distressed Neighborhoods Fig. 15.11

Sociocultural Influences Immigration Relatively high rates — contribute to U.S. ethnic diversity Special stressors often experienced Language barriers Separation from support network SES changes Preserving ethnic identity versus acculturation Cultural value conflicts within family

U.S. Adolescents Aged 10-19, 2000-2100 Fig. 15.12 Sociocultural Influences U.S. Adolescents Aged 10-19, 2000-2100 Fig. 15.12

Ethnicity Ethnicity and socioeconomic status Sociocultural Influences Ethnicity Ethnicity and socioeconomic status Difficult to separate influences of ethnicity and SES Minorities overrepresented in lower SES may cause exaggeration of negative ethnic influences Links between acculturation and adolescent problems

Ethnicity Ethnicity and families Sociocultural Influences Ethnicity Ethnicity and families Families vary by size, structure, composition, levels of income and education, kinship networks More single families in some groups Ethnic minority parents are less educated Children experience double disadvantage Do not escape prejudice and discrimination Stressful effects of poverty felt

Differences and Diversity Sociocultural Influences Differences and Diversity Recognizing differences important to getting along in diverse world Differences among ethnic groups too often conceived by majority as deficits of minorities Damaging to minorities Diversity within ethnic groups

Ethnicity and Aging Double jeopardy - ageism and racism Sociocultural Influences Ethnicity and Aging Double jeopardy - ageism and racism Health and wealth decrease faster in age than for White Americans Coping mechanisms Extended family networks Ethnic neighborhoods Churches

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