© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 Buyer 1 UnitValue 1 st $9 2 nd $6 3 rd $3 Buyer 1’s Demand.

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© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 Buyer 1 UnitValue 1 st $9 2 nd $6 3 rd $3 Buyer 1’s Demand

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B2 B1 Another way to see this is to sort the individual values to get a single value schedule. Buyer 1 UnitValue 1 st $9 2 nd $6 3 rd $3 + Buyer 2 UnitValue 1 st $8 2 nd $5 3 rd $2 = All Buyers UnitValue 1 st $9 2 nd $8 3 rd $6 4 th $5 5 th $3 6 th $2

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson S1 Seller 1 UnitCost 1 st $1 2 nd $4 3 rd $7 Seller 1’s Supply

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson Seller 3 UnitCost 1 st $3 2 nd $6 3 rd $9 Seller 1 UnitCost 1 st $1 2 nd $4 3 rd $7 + Seller 2 UnitCost 1 st $2 2 nd $5 3 rd $8 = + S1 S2 S3 Just like for buyers we can add up all of the individual seller’s cost schedules.

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 We can now combine the supply and demand graphs together in one picture like this.

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 When will the price be in equilibrium?

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 When will the price be in equilibrium? When excess demand and excess supply are zero.

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 We call this a competitive equilibrium, or, the price at which the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied. Buyers want to buy 5 units and sellers want to sell 5 units. P = $5

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 P = $5 A competitive equilibrium also predicts that the resulting trades will be efficient. But what is meant by efficient or efficiency?

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 Suppose Buyer 2 trades a first unit with Seller 3 at a price of $4.25. $8 $3 Gains from trade equal $5

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 Suppose Buyer 2 trades a first unit with Seller 3 at a price of $4.25. Buyer 2’s profit or consumer surplus is $8 – 4.25 = $3.75. Seller 3’s profit or producer surplus is $4.25 – 3.00 = $1.25. Surplus is a measure of the gains from trade. Both buyers and sellers gain from a trade.

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 Consumer Surplus is the difference between what customers are willing to pay and what they actually pay. Producer Surplus is the difference between what the sellers receive and what they are willing to receive. Total Surplus = Producer + Consumer surplus.

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 At the competitive equilibrium price of $5, B1 and B2, will each buy two units, and B3 will buy one unit. Also, S1 and S2 will each sell 2 units, and S3 will sell one unit. Total gains from trade (or surplus) are given by the green shaded area. Adding up the green squares we find that total surplus (producer + consumer) is $20.

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 The total surplus calculated from the competitive equilibrium is also the maximum possible surplus that can be generated from trade. Can you see why? For any given set of trades we can calculate the actual surplus generated by those trades. Market efficiency is total surplus realized divided by the maximum possible total surplus.

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 B1 B2 B3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 S1 S2 S3 The total surplus calculated from the competitive equilibrium is also the maximum possible surplus that can be generated from trade. Can you see why? For any given set of trades we can calculate the actual surplus generated by those trades. Efficiency (%) = Realized (PS + CS) Maximum Possible (PS + CS)

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson OK…So What Happened in Our Market?

© 2007 Bart J. Wilson The Oral Double Auction Individuals choose purposefully. –Interacting non-cooperatively and impersonally, a market of individuals simultaneously maximizes: (1) An individual’s return intentionally and (2) The aggregate social gains from exchange unintentionally. –“an end which was no part of his intention” (Adam Smith, 1776) “The most significant fact about this (price) system is the economy of knowledge with which it operates, or how little the individual participants need to know in order to be able to take the right action” (Hayek, 1945).