B2

Organisms grouped by shared characteristics. -Continuous spectrum which makes it difficult to place in distinct groups -Natural – evolutionary -Artificial - purposeful Classification Five Kingdoms: Protoctists Prokaryotes Fungi Plants Animals Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species DNA sequencing is used for classification Evolutionary Tree Evolutionary Relationship – common ancestor Ecological Relationship – organisms in an ecosystem Arthropods: Insects Arachnids Crustaceans Myriapods Species – a group of organisms which are capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring Problems classifying species: Hybrids Organisms Evolution as a continuing process Binomial System: international basis for naming species Closely Related Species: Share a relatively close ancestor Different features in different habitats

Energy Flow Trophic Level: position the organism has in a food chain Pyramid of Biomass: dry mass of living material at each stage of a food chain Pyramid of Numbers: population of each group Energy Transfer: Heat from respiration Excretion Egestion Difficulties constructing pyramids: Organisms in more than one trophic level Difficulties measuring dry biomass Efficiency of energy transfer explains: the shape of pyramid of biomass the limited length of food chains Calculate efficiency of energy transfer Excretory products, faeces and uneaten parts can be used as the starting point for other food chains.

Recycling When animals and plants die and decay the elements are recycled. Decomposers: soil bacteria and fungi, decay dead organisms Decay is important for making elements available to other living organisms. Required Elements for Decay: Carbon nitrogen Carbon is taken up by plants as CO 2 Recycling CARBON in nature: Plants – photosynthesis Feeding – carbon Respiration Burning fossil fuels Decomposers Marine organisms – shells Shells – limestone Volcanic eruption/weathering Oceans absorbing carbon Recycling NITROGEN in nature: Plants – nitrates for growth Feeding Nitrogen compounds in dead animals Decomposers – ammonia Ammonia  nitrates by nitrifying bacteria Fixing of nitrogen gas - lightning Recycling of nutrients takes longer in waterlogged or acidic soils than it does in well drained neutral soils.

Interdependence Competition will influence: Distribution Population Related to availability of: Food Water Shelter Light Size of predator population will affect the numbers of prey. Parasitism: parasite benefits to living host’s detriment (fleas) Mutualism: both species benefit (cleaner species, nitrogen fixing bacteria) Interspecific: different species, same resources Intraspecific: same species, limited resources Ecological Niche: place occupied by an organism Similar organisms will occupy similar niches Interdependence determines: Distribution Abundance Organisms benefit from the presence of different species. Animals and plants are affected by competition for resources. Analyse population sizes and distribution data

Adaptations Successful predators: Binocular vision Hunting strategy Breeding strategy To Avoid Being Prey: Eyes on side of head Living in groups Camouflage Mimicry Breeding strategy (synchronised) Cold Environments: Insulation/surface area to reduce heat loss Migration/hibernation Hot Environments: Increase heat loss Reduce heat gain Dry Environments: Coping for lack of water Surface Area to Volume ratio – analyse Counter-Current Heat System: warm blood entering body flows past cold blood returning to the rest of the body (Penguins flippers) Biochemically Adapted: optimum temperature for enzymes Specialists: well suited for certain habitats Generalists: live in a range of habitats, easily out competed

Natural Selection Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection: Presences of natural variation Competition for limited resources Survival of the fittest Inheritance of ‘successful’ adaptations Adaptations are controlled by genes which are passed on Acceptance of Natural Selection: Explains a wide range of observations Been discussed and tested by a wide range of scientists Over long periods of time adaptations can lead to formation of new species Speciation requires: Geographical isolation Reproductive isolation Lamarak’s Evolution: inheritance of acquired characteristics Lamarack’s Theory Discredited: Explanation did not have genetic basis Animals are more likely to survive when adapted to their environment When environments change, some animal and plant species survive or evolve, but many become extinct

Population and Pollution Finite Resources: Fossil fuels Minerals Human population increase = resource usage increase Pollution increase: Household waste Sewage Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Population growth is the result of birth rate > death rate Birth rate: number of babies born in a year Death rate: number of deaths in a year Developed countries with small population have the greatest impact on the use of resources and creation of pollution Measuring Pollution: Direct measurement of pollutant levels Measuring the occurrence of indicator species Indicator Species and Pollution: Water pollution – waterlouse sludgeworm, rat-tailed maggot and mayfly lava Air pollution - lichen Global warming: CO 2 from burning fuels Ozone depletion: CFCs breaking down UV light Acid Rain: sulfur dioxide Carbon Footprint: amount of greenhouse gases given off in a certain period of time

Sustainability Becoming Endangered or Extinct: Climate change Habitat destruction Hunting Pollution Competition Conserving Endangered Species: Protecting habitats Legal protection Education programmes Captive breeding programmes Seed banks Creating artificial ecosystems Reasons for Conservation Programmes: Protecting human food supply Minimal food chain damage Plant medical purposes Cultural aspects Evaluating Conservation Programmes: Genetic variation of key species Viability of populations Available habitats Interaction between species Commercial Value of Whales: Tourism (alive) Food Oil Cosmetics (dead) Captivity: Entertainment Research Captive breeding Lack of freedom Whaling: Getting international agreement Policing Enforcing agreements Hunting for research Whale Biology Still Not Understood: Communication Migration patterns Survival at extreme depths Sustainability Requires: Planning Cooperation at local, national and international levels

10 Minute Break!

Organisms grouped by shared characteristics. - -Natural – -Artificial - Classification Five Kingdoms: P F P A KPCOFGSKPCOFGS DNA sequencing is used for _________ Evolutionary Tree Evolutionary Relationship – Ecological Relationship – Arthropods: I A C M Species – define Problems classifying species: H O E Binomial System: define Closely Related Species: 2 things

Organisms grouped by shared characteristics. -Continuous spectrum which makes it difficult to place in distinct groups -Natural – evolutionary -Artificial - purposeful Classification Five Kingdoms: Protoctists Prokaryotes Fungi Plants Animals Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species DNA sequencing is used for classification Evolutionary Tree Evolutionary Relationship – common ancestor Ecological Relationship – organisms in an ecosystem Arthropods: Insects Arachnids Crustaceans Myriapods Species – a group of organisms which are capable of interbreeding to produce fertile offspring Problems classifying species: Hybrids Organisms Evolution as a continuing process Binomial System: international basis for naming species Closely Related Species: Share a relatively close ancestor Different features in different habitats

Energy Flow Trophic Level: define Pyramid of Biomass: define Pyramid of Numbers: define Energy Transfer: H E Difficulties constructing pyramids: O D ____________________________________ __________ starting point for other food chains. Efficiency of energy transfer explains: 2 things Calculate efficiency of energy transfer

Energy Flow Trophic Level: position the organism has in a food chain Pyramid of Biomass: dry mass of living material at each stage of a food chain Pyramid of Numbers: population of each group Energy Transfer: Heat from respiration Excretion Egestion Difficulties constructing pyramids: Organisms in more than one trophic level Difficulties measuring dry biomass Efficiency of energy transfer explains: the shape of pyramid of biomass the limited length of food chains Calculate efficiency of energy transfer Excretory products, faeces and uneaten parts can be used as the starting point for other food chains.

Recycling When animals and plants die and decay the elements are _____________. Decomposers: Decay is important for __________________________. Required Elements for Decay: 2 elements Carbon is ______________________. Recycling CARBON in nature: P F R B D M S V O Recycling NITROGEN in nature: P F N D A F Recycling of nutrients takes ________________________________ ________________________________ _______________________________.

Recycling When animals and plants die and decay the elements are recycled. Decomposers: soil bacteria and fungi, decay dead organisms Decay is important for making elements available to other living organisms. Required Elements for Decay: Carbon nitrogen Carbon is taken up by plants as CO 2 Recycling CARBON in nature: Plants – photosynthesis Feeding – carbon Respiration Burning fossil fuels Decomposers Marine organisms – shells Shells – limestone Volcanic eruption/weathering Oceans absorbing carbon Recycling NITROGEN in nature: Plants – nitrates for growth Feeding Nitrogen compounds in dead animals Decomposers – ammonia Ammonia  nitrates by nitrifying bacteria Fixing of nitrogen gas - lightning Recycling of nutrients takes longer in waterlogged or acidic soils than it does in well drained neutral soils.

Interdependence Competition will influence: D P Related to availability of: F W S L __________ will affect the _____________. Parasitism: who benefits? Mutualism: who benefits? Interspecific: define Intraspecific: define Ecological Niche: define Interdependence determines: D A Organisms benefit ___________________________. Animals and plants are affected by ______________________________. Analyse _________________________.

Interdependence Competition will influence: Distribution Population Related to availability of: Food Water Shelter Light Size of predator population will affect the numbers of prey. Parasitism: parasite benefits to living host’s detriment (fleas) Mutualism: both species benefit (cleaner species, nitrogen fixing bacteria) Interspecific: different species, same resources Intraspecific: same species, limited resources Ecological Niche: place occupied by an organism Similar organisms will occupy similar niches Interdependence determines: Distribution Abundance Organisms benefit from the presence of different species. Animals and plants are affected by competition for resources. Analyse population sizes and distribution data

Adaptations Successful predators: B H B To Avoid Being Prey: E L C M B Cold Environments: I M Hot Environments: I R Dry Environments: C _____________ ratio – analyse Counter-Current Heat System: define Biochemically Adapted: Specialists: Generalists:

Adaptations Successful predators: Binocular vision Hunting strategy Breeding strategy To Avoid Being Prey: Eyes on side of head Living in groups Camouflage Mimicry Breeding strategy (synchronised) Cold Environments: Insulation/surface area to reduce heat loss Migration/hibernation Hot Environments: Increase heat loss Reduce heat gain Dry Environments: Coping for lack of water Surface Area to Volume ratio – analyse Counter-Current Heat System: warm blood entering body flows past cold blood returning to the rest of the body (Penguins flippers) Biochemically Adapted: optimum temperature for enzymes Specialists: well suited for certain habitats Generalists: live in a range of habitats, easily out competed

Natural Selection Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection: P C S I Adaptations are ________________________. Acceptance of Natural Selection: E B Over long periods of time ___________________________ __________________________. Speciation requires: G R Lamarak’s Evolution: what is it? Lamarack’s Theory Discredited: Why? Animals are more likely to survive ____________________________. When environments change, ________________________ ________________________ _______________________.

Natural Selection Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection: Presences of natural variation Competition for limited resources Survival of the fittest Inheritance of ‘successful’ adaptations Adaptations are controlled by genes which are passed on Acceptance of Natural Selection: Explains a wide range of observations Been discussed and tested by a wide range of scientists Over long periods of time adaptations can lead to formation of new species Speciation requires: Geographical isolation Reproductive isolation Lamarak’s Evolution: inheritance of acquired characteristics Lamarack’s Theory Discredited: Explanation did not have genetic basis Animals are more likely to survive when adapted to their environment When environments change, some animal and plant species survive or evolve, but many become extinct

Population and Pollution Finite Resources: F M Human population increase = resource usage increase Pollution increase: H S C Population growth ________________________________ Birth rate: Death rate: Developed countries __________________________ __________________________ _________________________. Measuring Pollution: D M Indicator Species and Pollution: W A Global warming: Ozone depletion: Acid Rain: Carbon Footprint:

Population and Pollution Finite Resources: Fossil fuels Minerals Human population increase = resource usage increase Pollution increase: Household waste Sewage Sulfur dioxide Carbon dioxide Population growth is the result of birth rate > death rate Birth rate: number of babies born in a year Death rate: number of deaths in a year Developed countries with small population have the greatest impact on the use of resources and creation of pollution Measuring Pollution: Direct measurement of pollutant levels Measuring the occurrence of indicator species Indicator Species and Pollution: Water pollution – waterlouse sludgeworm, rat-tailed maggot and mayfly lava Air pollution - lichen Global warming: CO 2 from burning fuels Ozone depletion: CFCs breaking down UV light Acid Rain: sulfur dioxide Carbon Footprint: amount of greenhouse gases given off in a certain period of time

Sustainability Becoming Endangered or Extinct: C H P C Conserving Endangered Species: P L E C S C Reasons for Conservation Programmes: P M P C Evaluating Conservation Programmes: G V A I Commercial Value of Whales: T F O C Captivity: E R C L Whaling: G P E H Whale Biology Still Not Understood: C M S Sustainability Requires: P C

Sustainability Becoming Endangered or Extinct: Climate change Habitat destruction Hunting Pollution Competition Conserving Endangered Species: Protecting habitats Legal protection Education programmes Captive breeding programmes Seed banks Creating artificial ecosystems Reasons for Conservation Programmes: Protecting human food supply Minimal food chain damage Plant medical purposes Cultural aspects Evaluating Conservation Programmes: Genetic variation of key species Viability of populations Available habitats Interaction between species Commercial Value of Whales: Tourism (alive) Food Oil Cosmetics (dead) Captivity: Entertainment Research Captive breeding Lack of freedom Whaling: Getting international agreement Policing Enforcing agreements Hunting for research Whale Biology Still Not Understood: Communication Migration patterns Survival at extreme depths Sustainability Requires: Planning Cooperation at local, national and international levels