Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 1 Behaviour in Social and Cultural Context Chapter 8
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 2 Chapter Outline Roles and rulesRoles and rules Social influences on beliefsSocial influences on beliefs Individuals in groupsIndividuals in groups Us versus them: Group identityUs versus them: Group identity Group conflict and prejudiceGroup conflict and prejudice
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 3 Roles and Rules Defining norms and rolesDefining norms and roles The obedience studyThe obedience study The prison studyThe prison study The power of rolesThe power of roles
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 4 Defining Roles and Rules NormsNorms –Rules that regulate human life, including social conventions, explicit laws, and implicit cultural standards RoleRole –A given social position that is governed by a set of norms for proper behaviour
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 5 Defining Roles and Rules CultureCulture –A program of shared rules that govern the behaviour of members of a community or society, and –A set of values, beliefs and attitudes shared by most members of that community
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 The Obedience Study Stanley Milgram and coworkers investigated whether people would follow orders, even when the order violated their ethical standardsStanley Milgram and coworkers investigated whether people would follow orders, even when the order violated their ethical standards Most people were far more obedient than anyone expectedMost people were far more obedient than anyone expected –Every single participant complied with at least some orders to shock another person –2/3 shocked the learner to the full extent Results are controversial and have generated much research on violence and obedienceResults are controversial and have generated much research on violence and obedience
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 7 Milgram’s Obedience Experiment
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 8 Factors Leading to Disobedience in Milgram’s study When the experimenter left the roomWhen the experimenter left the room When the victim was in the same roomWhen the victim was in the same room When the experimenter issued conflicting demandsWhen the experimenter issued conflicting demands When the person ordering them to continue was an ordinary manWhen the person ordering them to continue was an ordinary man When the subject worked with peers who refused to go onWhen the subject worked with peers who refused to go on
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 9 Evaluating the Obedience Study Raises ethical questions regarding the deception used in the studyRaises ethical questions regarding the deception used in the study Ethical concern over the emotional pain many subjects experiencedEthical concern over the emotional pain many subjects experienced Some question the similarity of this study with the actions of Nazis in GermanySome question the similarity of this study with the actions of Nazis in Germany
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 10 The Prison Study Subjects were physically and mentally healthy young men who volunteered to participate for moneySubjects were physically and mentally healthy young men who volunteered to participate for money They were randomly assigned to be prisoners or guardsThey were randomly assigned to be prisoners or guards Those assigned the role of prisoner became distressed, helpless, and panickyThose assigned the role of prisoner became distressed, helpless, and panicky Those assigned the roles of guards became either nice, “tough but fair,” or tyrannicalThose assigned the roles of guards became either nice, “tough but fair,” or tyrannical Study had to be ended after 6 daysStudy had to be ended after 6 days
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 11 Why People Obey Factors causing people to obey:Factors causing people to obey: –Allocating responsibility to the authority –Routinizing the task –Wanting to be polite –Becoming entrapped Entrapment: A gradual process in which individuals escalate their commitment to a course of action to justify their investment of time, money, or effortEntrapment: A gradual process in which individuals escalate their commitment to a course of action to justify their investment of time, money, or effort
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 12 Social Influences on Beliefs Defining social cognitionDefining social cognition Attribution theory and conceptsAttribution theory and concepts AttitudesAttitudes
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 13 Social Cognition An area in social psychology concerned with social influences on thought, memory, perception, and other cognitive processesAn area in social psychology concerned with social influences on thought, memory, perception, and other cognitive processes Researcher are interested in how people’s perceptions of themselves and others affect:Researcher are interested in how people’s perceptions of themselves and others affect: –Their relationships, thoughts, beliefs and values
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 14 Attributions Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory –The theory that people are motivated to explain their own and other peoples’ behaviour by attributing causes of that behaviour to a situation or a disposition Fundamental Attribution ErrorFundamental Attribution Error –Tendency in explaining others’ behaviours to overestimate personality factors and underestimate situational influence
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 15 Other Attributions Self-serving biasSelf-serving bias –Tendency, in explaining own behaviour, to take credit for one’s good actions and rationalize one’s mistakes Group-serving biasGroup-serving bias –The tendency to explain favourably the behaviours of members of groups to which we belong Just-world hypothesisJust-world hypothesis –The notion that many people need to believe that the world is fair and that justice is served –Bad people are punished and good people rewarded
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 16 Attitudes A relatively stable opinion containing beliefs and emotional feelings about a topicA relatively stable opinion containing beliefs and emotional feelings about a topic –Explicit We are aware of them; they shape conscious decisionsWe are aware of them; they shape conscious decisions –Implicit We are unaware of them; they may influence our behaviour in ways we do not recognizeWe are unaware of them; they may influence our behaviour in ways we do not recognize
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 17 Factors Influencing Attitude Change Change in social environmentChange in social environment Change in behavioursChange in behaviours Due to a need for consistencyDue to a need for consistency –Cognitive Dissonance A state of tension that occurs when a person simultaneously holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, orA state of tension that occurs when a person simultaneously holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, or When a person’s belief is incongruent with his or her behaviourWhen a person’s belief is incongruent with his or her behaviour
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 18 Friendly Persuasion Validity effect The tendency of people to believe that a statement is true or valid simply because it has been repeated many timesValidity effect The tendency of people to believe that a statement is true or valid simply because it has been repeated many times
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 19 Influencing Attitudes
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 20 Coercive Persuasion Person is under physical or emotional duressPerson is under physical or emotional duress Person’s problems are reduced to one simple explanation, repeated oftenPerson’s problems are reduced to one simple explanation, repeated often Leader offers unconditional love, acceptance, and attentionLeader offers unconditional love, acceptance, and attention New identity based on group is createdNew identity based on group is created Person is subjected to entrapmentPerson is subjected to entrapment Person’s access to information is controlledPerson’s access to information is controlled
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 21 Individuals in Groups ConformityConformity The anonymous crowdThe anonymous crowd Altruism and dissentAltruism and dissent
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 22Conformity Subjects in a group were asked to match line lengthsSubjects in a group were asked to match line lengths Confederates in the group picked wrong lineConfederates in the group picked wrong line Subjects went along with wrong answer 37% of trialsSubjects went along with wrong answer 37% of trials Meta-analyses demonstrate that conformity has decreased in US since May be due to social normsMeta-analyses demonstrate that conformity has decreased in US since May be due to social norms –Individualistic vs. Collectivist cultures
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 23 Individualism and Collectivism Individualist CulturesIndividualist Cultures –Are those in which individual goals and wishes are prized above duty to and relations with others Collectivist CulturesCollectivist Cultures –Are those in which harmony with one’s group is prized above individual goals and wishes
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 24 The Anonymous Crowd Diffusion of ResponsibilityDiffusion of Responsibility –In organized or anonymous groups, the tendency of members to avoid taking responsibility for actions or decisions because they assume that others will do so –Bystander apathy People fail to call for help when others are near.People fail to call for help when others are near. –Social loafing When people work less in the presence of others, allowing others to work harderWhen people work less in the presence of others, allowing others to work harder
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 25 Deindividuation In groups or crowds, the loss of awareness of one’s own individualityIn groups or crowds, the loss of awareness of one’s own individuality Factors influencing deindividuationFactors influencing deindividuation –Size of city, group –Uniforms or masks Deindividuation can influence unlawful as well as friendly behavioursDeindividuation can influence unlawful as well as friendly behaviours –Depends on norms of the specific situation
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 26 Altruism and Dissent AltruismAltruism –involves a willingness to take selfless or dangerous action on behalf of others –is seen as a matter of personal conviction and conscience
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 27 Altruism and Dissent Situational factors contributing to altruism and dissent:Situational factors contributing to altruism and dissent: –You perceive the need for intervention or help –Situation makes it more likely that you will take responsibility –Cost-benefit ratio supports your decision to get involved –You have an ally –You become entrapped
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 28 Us versus Them: Group Identity and Conflict Social IdentitySocial Identity The part of a person’s self-concept that is based on his or her identification with a nation, culture, or ethnic group or with gender or other roles in society The part of a person’s self-concept that is based on his or her identification with a nation, culture, or ethnic group or with gender or other roles in society Ethnic IdentityEthnic Identity A person’s close identification with a religious or ethnic group, often related to traditional family customs and practices A person’s close identification with a religious or ethnic group, often related to traditional family customs and practices
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 29 Acculturation Process of cultural identity change when two or more cultures are in continuous contactProcess of cultural identity change when two or more cultures are in continuous contact –Often involves assimilation or identification with the dominant culture –May involve separation, marginalization, or bicultural integration
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 30 Group Identity: Us versus Them EthnocentrismEthnocentrism –The belief that one’s own ethnic group, nation, or religion is superior to all others –Aids survival by making people feel attached to their own group and willing to work on their group’s behalf Us versus them social identities are strengthened when groups compete with one anotherUs versus them social identities are strengthened when groups compete with one another –Robbers’ Cave studies
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 31 Robbers’ Cave Experiment Boys were randomly separated into two groupsBoys were randomly separated into two groups –“ Rattlers” and “Eagles” Competitions fostered hostility between the groupsCompetitions fostered hostility between the groups Experimenters contrived situations requiring cooperation for successExperimenters contrived situations requiring cooperation for success Cross-group friendships increasedCross-group friendships increased
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 32 Stereotypes Cognitive schemas or summary impressions of a group, in which a person believes that all members of the group share a common trait or traits (positive, negative, or neutral)Cognitive schemas or summary impressions of a group, in which a person believes that all members of the group share a common trait or traits (positive, negative, or neutral) Allow us to quickly process new information and retrieve memoriesAllow us to quickly process new information and retrieve memories Distort reality in 3 waysDistort reality in 3 ways –Exaggerate differences between groups –Produce selective perception –Underestimate differences between groups
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 33 Group Conflict and Prejudice The origins of prejudiceThe origins of prejudice Defining and measuring prejudiceDefining and measuring prejudice Reducing conflict and prejudiceReducing conflict and prejudice
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 34 Origins of Prejudice Psychological functionsPsychological functions –People inflate own self-worth by disliking groups they see as inferior Social and cultural functionsSocial and cultural functions –By disliking others we feel closer to others who are like us Economic functionsEconomic functions –Legitimizes unequal economic treatment
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 35 Defining and Measuring Prejudice Not all people are prejudiced in the same wayNot all people are prejudiced in the same way People know they shouldn’t be prejudiced so measures of prejudice have declinedPeople know they shouldn’t be prejudiced so measures of prejudice have declined Distinguishing between explicit and implicit prejudiceDistinguishing between explicit and implicit prejudice
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 36 Measures of Explicit Prejudice
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 37 Defining and Measuring Prejudice Measuring implicit prejudiceMeasuring implicit prejudice –Measures of symbolic racism –Measures of behaviours rather than attitudes –Measures of unconscious associations with a target group
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 38 Reducing Prejudice and Conflict Groups must have equal legal status, economic opportunities, and powerGroups must have equal legal status, economic opportunities, and power Authorities and community institutions must endorse egalitarian norms and provide moral support and legitimacy for both sidesAuthorities and community institutions must endorse egalitarian norms and provide moral support and legitimacy for both sides Both sides must have opportunities to work and socialize together, formally and informallyBoth sides must have opportunities to work and socialize together, formally and informally Both sides must cooperate, working together for a common goalBoth sides must cooperate, working together for a common goal