Soil Biogeochemical Cycles Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus

Refer to BIOTIC REGULATION in Farm as Natural Habitat book, pp 156-7

24/103 required by organisms Macronutrients: C,H,N,O,P,S Micronutrients

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES The complete pathway that a chemical element takes through the biosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere.

Elements transferred between compartments (pools) Active: accessible to living things Storage: inaccessible

Soil Carbon Cycle

CARBON CYCLE atmosphere biosphere respiration photosynthesis

Soil Organic Carbon Gains? Losses?

Soil organic carbon Plant residues Applied organic materials GAINS RespirationPlant removalErosion LOSSES

Pools (compartments) of soil organic matter: ( categorized by susceptibility to microbial respiration) 1. Active C:N 15:1 – 30:1 1-2 years readily accessible to microbes; most of mineralizable N 10 – 20% of total 2. Slow C:N 10:1 – 25: yrs food for autochthonous microbes ; some mineralizable N 3. Passive C:N 7:1 – 10: yrs colloidal; good for nutrient and water-holding % of total

Soil management may help curb greenhouse effect due to carbon dioxide emissions pre-Industrial Revolution: 280 ppm CO2 post: 370 ppm 0.5% increase per year Causes: 1. Fossil fuel burning 2. Net loss of soil organic matter By changing balance between gains and losses, may limit loss of OM…how?

How? 1. Restore passive fraction in soils that are degraded. -sequesters carbon for long time 2. Switch to no-till practices 3. Convert to perennial vegetation

Cornfield in warm, temperate climate Net loss of carbon!!

Soil Nitrogen Cycle

Atmosphere 78% nitrogen Not in directly accessible form for organisms –Made usable by fixation Most terrestrial N in soil –95-99% in organic compounds –Made usable by mineralization

Let’s look at all components and processes in nitrogen cycle…..

A. Nitrogen fixation 1. Atmospheric: lightning –Oxidation of N 2 2. Industrial production of N fertilizer N 2 + H 2 → NH 3 3. Biological (soil organisms) (industrial fixes 85% as much N as organisms)

Biological fixation (soil organisms) Immobilization: microbes convert N 2 to N-containing organic compounds Nitrogenase

2 groups of N-fixing microorganisms A.Nonsymbiotic, autotrophic: (use solar energy) Cyanobacter (formerly known as blue-green algae) in anaerobic; Azotobacter in aerobic 5-50 lbs....../acre/year

B. Symbiotic, in association with legume plants ( plants supply energy from photosynthesis) 1. Rhyzobium 2. Bradyrhizobium Infect root hairs and root nodules of legumes

peas, clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, peanuts, beans, soybeans Alfalfa lbs....../acre/year Soybeans lbs /acre/year Beans - 40 lbs...../acre/year * Green manure is live plant material added to soil to increase N content and SOM.

Symbiosis: mutualistic: plants provide energy, bacteria provide ammonia for synthesis of tissue Energy-demanding process: N 2 + 8H + + 6e - + nitrogenase → 2NH 3 + H 2 NH 3 + organic acids → amino acids → proteins

Dazzo & Wopereis, 2000 Vance et al., 1980 Infection and nodule formation Rhizobium Dazzo & Wopereis, 2000 Gage and Margolin, 2000 Root hair curling around rhizobia Rhizobia reproduce in infection threads Bacteroids filling a single cell Alfalfa root nodule M. Barnett Michael Russelle - USDA-ARS Plant Science Research Unit

B. Mineralization (ammonification) Heterotrophic microorganisms Decomposition Organic N compounds broken down to ammonia; energy released for microorganisms to use

ammonification Organic N + O 2 →CO 2 + H 2 O +NH 3 + energy

C. Nitrification Oxidizes ammonia to nitrate; 2 step oxidation process: 1. Nitrosomonas: NH 3 →NO 2 - (nitrite) + energy 2. Nitrobacter: NO 2 - →NO 3 - (nitrate) + energy

D. Denitrification Completes N cycle by returning N 2 to atmosphere (prevents N added as fertilizer from being “locked” in roots and soil) Requires energy; Reduction of nitrate/nitrite NO 2 or NO 3 + energy→N 2 + O 2 (many steps) Denitrifying bacteria and fungi in anaerobic conditions

Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorous Cycle  P often limiting factor for plants:  low in parent materials  inclination to form low-soluble inorganic compounds  After N, P is most abundant nutrient in microbial tissue

Differs from N cycle 1. No gaseous component 2. N goes into solution as nitrate –Stable, plant-available But P reacts quickly with other ions and converts to unavailable forms

Available P in soil solution: as H 2 PO 4 - or HPO 4 -2 ion Microbes constantly consume and release P to soil solution

Unavailable forms of P depend on soil pH: High pH: calcium phosphate CaHPO4 –Stable in high pH –Soluble in low pH E.g., rhizosphere, so plants can get it –Can be transformed to less-soluble Ca-P form (apatite) Low pH: iron and aluminum phosphates –Highly stable –Slightly soluble in low pH

Role of mycorrhizae in P cycle: Can infect several plants: Hyphae connect plants ; conduits for nutrients Fungi get E from plant ‘s photosynthesis.