Reading and Writing Critically The Art and Science of Critical Thinking

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. Previewing Text Can Help You Plan to Read Efficiently How much material do I have to read? How much material do I have to read? Can I divide the material into manageable chunks per day (e.g., 10 pages/day)? Can I divide the material into manageable chunks per day (e.g., 10 pages/day)? Are there titles and subtitles I can skim? Are there titles and subtitles I can skim? What do the introduction and conclusion say? What do the introduction and conclusion say?

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. Previewing Text Can Improve Critical Reading Am I already familiar with the material? Am I already familiar with the material? Do I have biases one way or another? Do I have biases one way or another? Is there a useful bibliography, and should I follow up? Is there a useful bibliography, and should I follow up?

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. Distinguish Between Fact and Opinion

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. FACT Reliable piece of information Reliable piece of information  Reliability = provable & unbiased Can be tested or proved Can be tested or proved  Verifiable through independent sources

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. OPINION Assertions or inferences Assertions or inferences May or may not be based on facts May or may not be based on facts Can be challenged Can be challenged

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. Distinguish Between Absolute and Moderate Claims Absolute University Studies courses are a complete waste of time. University Studies courses are a complete waste of time. Moderate Some University Studies courses are not very challenging. It’s impossible to get an A from Dr. White. It’s impossible to get an A from Dr. White. Dr. White gives very few A’s. Dr. White gives very few A’s.

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. Inductive vs. Deductive Reasoning Inductive Moves from small to BIG. Moves from small to BIG. Goes from facts to generalizations. Goes from facts to generalizations. Deductive Moves from BIG to small. Applies generalizations to specific situations.

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. Inductive Reasoning Uses Scientific Method Hypothesize Hypothesize Gather Data Gather Data Must be researchable Must be sufficient, unbiased & representative Analyze Data Analyze Data Draw Conclusions Draw Conclusions Method must be appropriate Method must be appropriate Must avoid logical fallacies Must avoid logical fallacies

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. Biggest Dangers: Relying on anecdotes or small case- study “evidence” Relying on anecdotes or small case- study “evidence” The “inductive leap” The “inductive leap”  sweeping generalizations

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. Deductive Reasoning Relies on Syllogisms MAIN PREMISE (Generalization): All PSU undergrads must take a Freshman Inquiry course. MINOR PREMISE: Robert Glenn is a PSU undergrad. CONCLUSION: Therefore, Robert Glenn must take Freshman Inquiry.

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. Biggest Dangers: The premises must be true: Not all PSU undergrads must take Freshman Inquiry. The premises must be true: Not all PSU undergrads must take Freshman Inquiry. The syllogism must be valid (logical): The syllogism must be valid (logical):  All horses are animals  A dog is an animal.  Therefore, a dog is a horse.

© Martha J. Bianco, Ph.D. Qualifiers Help Moderate Syllogisms

Avoid Logical Fallacies Faulty Premises, Misuse of Data, Distortion of Evidence

Ad hominem Personal attack, with negative values, unrelated to thesis. “George W. Bush is a bully, waging war at all costs.”

Appeal to Tradition Relying on tradition as an explanation. “Marriage has always been between a man and a woman.”

Bandwagon Argument Justifying an argument because “everyone” thinks or acts that way. “Everyone knows that 90 percent of Americans believe in God and in prayer.”

Begging the Question Assuming what needs to be proved – or answered – before action is taken. “Campus search engines should be filtered to stop students’ viewing of porn and other unacceptable content.”

Equivocation Explaining or describing a word by using the same word. “Understanding communities is complicated because communities are complicated.”

False Analogy Assuming that two things that are similar in one way are similar in other ways. “Homosexuals should not be given the same rights as pedophiles.”

False Authority Assuming that someone who is an expert in one field is an authority in other fields. “My children’s pediatrician doesn’t think that Jane Doe was truly brain dead.”

False Cause post hoc, ergo propter hoc Arguing that because one event follows another or because the two events are correlated, the first caused the second. “As the number of new immigrants to Portland has increased, so has the percentage of people on welfare.”

False Dilemma the “either/or fallacy” Insisting that there are just two possible solutions or alternatives, when in fact there may be many. “Either we allow mothers to bring their preschoolers to class or we don’t allow them to take classes until their kids reach school age.”

Guilt by Association Unfairly criticizing or accusing someone because of the beliefs or actions of others. “The new mayor must be gay, because I saw him and his two assistants at a lesbian bookstore.”

Hasty / Sweeping Generalizations “ Leaping to Conclusions” Generalizing or inferring to a larger population based on a personal anecdote or very little or biased evidence. “She’s Italian, so you know she must love garlic!”

Oversimplification An argument that provides a very simple explanation or solution for a very complex problem or issue. “We can solve the health care crisis by encouraging private medical savings accounts.”

Dodging the Issue Ignoring the Question / Red Herring Diverting attention away from the real problem or question by focusing on something unrelated. “We should be celebrating free, democratic elections in Iraq rather than quibbling over who had what weapons where.”

The Slippery Slope Argument Arguing that doing one thing will just lead to a cascade of other events. “If we allow gays to marry, should we also allow grown men to marry underage girls, or brothers to wed their sisters?”