Lijphart C7: Exec-legislative relations C8: Electoral Systems

Presidential V. Parliamentary  Major Differences Separation and confidence Nature of election Collegial v. noncollegial  Other Differences Separation of powers means that executive officers cannot serve in the legislature (there are some exceptions in some parliamentary systems) Presidents cannot dissolve the legislature Head of State v. Head of Government

Simple Models: Parl v. Pres Source:

Veto Gates: UK v. US  UK: One veto gate: House of Commons (ignoring House of Lords, which is not powerless, but is definitely weaker than House of Commons)  US has three elected veto gates Presidency House of Representatives Senate

Veto Gates: UK v. US US: Separate origin and survival of each institution: --must transact Inter-branch transactions, even if the same party has presidency and congressional majorities

Parliamentary Systems with Minority or Coalitional Governments  Still hierarchical relationship of cabinet to parliament …cabinet survives only so long as it does not lose the “confidence” of the legislative majority  But absence of a majority means inter- party transactions (i.e., among multiple veto players)

Presidential Systems: US v. Brazil Compared to the US, Brazil’s presidency is “stronger”: Decree power And “weaker”: Veto can be overridden by 50%+1 (not two thirds) Note: Lula’s PT won 19.2% of the vote for Senate in 2006, electing 6 of the 27 senators up for election and 15% of the vote for deputies, winning 83 out of 513 seats

Hybrid/Semi-Presidential/Mixed Systems  President elected by the public  Appoints a PM and Cabinet Subject to Parliamentary Approval  “Cohabitation”  Examples: France, Russia (many others)

Semi-Presidential Systems

On Varieties of Semi-Presidentialism

France (a Premier-Presidential System)  France 1981: François Mitterrand, Socialist Party, elected President in May, 1981  But National Assembly (474 seats, five-year term), elected in 1978: Mitterrand’s alliance: Socialists102 Communists 86 Opposition Gaullists178 UDF124

France 1981: President Mitterrand exercised his constitutional authority to dissolve parliament (14 June) Mitterrand’s alliance: Socialists Communists Opposition Gaullists UDF …able to appoint a Socialist premier and cabinet (Pierre Mauroy)

1986 National Assembly election Mitterrand’s alliance: Socialists198 Communists 32 Opposition Gaullists146 UDF128

Cohabitation! Mitterrand had to appoint a premier from the Gaullist–UDF alliance (Jacques Chirac)

France 1988: Mitterrand reelected, dissolved parliament again Mitterrand’s alliance: Socialists Communists Opposition Gaullists UDF …Mitterrand able to appoint a Socialist premier again (Michel Rocard)

France 1997  President is now Jacques Chirac, elected 1995  Chirac dissolved parliament in 1997

France Chirac’s alliance Gaullists UDF Left opposition Socialists Communists …Chirac must appoint a Socialist premier (Lionel Jospin). Cohabitation again!

Semi-Presidentialism in Poland is Confusing  President Lech Kaczyński PM Jarosław Kaczyński 

Electoral Formula: Plurality/Majority Systems v. PR  Types of Plurality/Majority SMD/FPTP True majority systems  2-Round run-off systems often used in presidential races like in AL primaries  French System  Alternative Vote

Electoral Formula: Plurality/Majority Systems v. PR  PR Systems List PR  lists are closed (signif?)  differing PR formulae Mixed Member Proportional STV

Political Effect of Electoral Rules  Mechanical Effects: how do the rules impact the translation of votes into seats?  Psychological Effects: how do those impacts influence the choices of voters?

Duverger’s Law & Hypothesis  Duverger’s Law: “Plurality rule tends to reduce the number of parties to two, regardless of the number of issue dimensions” (Taageperga and Shugart 1989:65)  Duverger’s Hypothesis: “PR rules tend not to reduced the number of parties, if the number of issue dimensions favors the existence of many parties” (ibid., 65).

Duverger’s Law & Hypothesis (Source: Taagepera and Shugart, 1989:143)

Duverger’s Law & Hypothesis (Source: Taagepera and Shugart, 1989:144)

Source: Lijphart 1994:

Ballot Example: Closed List-PR Source:

Ballot Example: Open List-PR Source:

STV Example: Ireland Source: Mair 1986: 292

Ireland and STV  See: =2002&cons=57&ref= =2002&cons=57&ref

Mixed Member Systems Source:

Mixed Member Systems  German elections:

A MMP Sample Ballot

German Bundestag Ballot

Source: Lijphart, et al. 1986:160

Sources Note: material on veto gates and France via Matthew Shugart (personal correspondence)