The Black Freedom Struggle Origins Origins Nonviolent direct action Nonviolent direct action A Reluctant Government Responds A Reluctant Government Responds Race in the North Race in the North Black power and Black power and urban uprisings urban uprisings Selma, 1965

Origins of the Black Freedom Struggle The World War II Experience The World War II Experience The March on Washington Movement The March on Washington Movement African American veterans African American veterans Mexican American veterans Mexican American veterans and the GI Forum and the GI Forum African American migration African American migration Pressures on the Truman Pressures on the TrumanAdministration A. Phillip Randolph

Origins: the impact of the Cold War “hostile reaction [to racial oppression in the U.S.] among normally friendly peoples is growing in alarming proportions, [endangering] our moral leadership of the free and democratic nations of the world.” “hostile reaction [to racial oppression in the U.S.] among normally friendly peoples is growing in alarming proportions, [endangering] our moral leadership of the free and democratic nations of the world.” Dean Acheson

Origins The NAACP’s legal strategy The NAACP’s legal strategy Brown v. Topeka Board of Education, 1954 and the struggle over compliance Brown v. Topeka Board of Education, 1954 and the struggle over compliance

The Montgomery Bus Boycott, Antecedents Ordinary people: Parks, Nixon, Robinson The rise of Martin Luther King, Jr. and the SCLC

Non-Violent Direct Action Roots in Christianity and in the ideas of Mahatma Ghandi Roots in Christianity and in the ideas of Mahatma Ghandi Persuasion through Persuasion through Nonviolence Nonviolence Non-cooperation Non-cooperation Civil Disobedience Civil Disobedience “Non-cooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good.” “Non-cooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good.”

“We will match your capacity to inflict suffering with our capacity to endure suffering. We will meet your physical force with soul force. We will not hate you, but we cannot in all good conscience obey your unjust laws....We will soon wear you down by our capacity to suffer. And in winning our freedom, we will so appeal to your heart and “We will match your capacity to inflict suffering with our capacity to endure suffering. We will meet your physical force with soul force. We will not hate you, but we cannot in all good conscience obey your unjust laws....We will soon wear you down by our capacity to suffer. And in winning our freedom, we will so appeal to your heart and conscience that we will conscience that we will win you in the process.” win you in the process.”

The beginning of nonviolent resistance Greensboro, NC, 1960

CORE and the Freedom Rides

James Meredith integrates the University of Mississippi, 1962 Birmingham, 1963 March on Washington, 1963 Mississippi Freedom Democratic movement, 1964 Selma-Montgomery march for voting rights, 1965

Birmingham 1963

A Reluctant Government Responds Civil Rights Act of 1964 Civil Rights Act of 1964 Public accommodations Public accommodations Education Education Employment Employment Extended to ban sex discrimination Extended to ban sex discrimination Voting Rights Act of 1965 Voting Rights Act of 1965 Executive order affecting companies with federal contracts: non-discrimination and affirmative action, 1965 Executive order affecting companies with federal contracts: non-discrimination and affirmative action, 1965 Civil Rights Act of 1968 Civil Rights Act of 1968

The Government Responds

... and fails to respond Protection of protesters Protection of protesters Democratic Party and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, 1964 Democratic Party and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, 1964 Economic Deprivation and the Limitations of the War on Poverty Economic Deprivation and the Limitations of the War on Poverty

Race in the North: Carl Stokes and Cleveland

Black Power “This is the twenty-seventh time I have been arrested, and I ain’t going to jail no more. The only way we gonna stop them white man from whuppin’ us is to take over. We been saying freedom for six years--and we ain’t got nothin’. What we gonna start saying now is ‘Black Power’.” Stokely Carmichael, during the March against Fear, Stokely Carmichael, during the March against Fear, Mississippi, 1966:

Black Power Pride in African American culture Pride in African American culture Separatism Separatism Black autonomy and enterprise Black autonomy and enterprise Self-defense Self-defense

Black Power Pittsburgh Courier: “How great can the American Negro become in self esteem and personal dignity if his history and culture are lost, both to him and to his white colleagues?” Pittsburgh Courier: “How great can the American Negro become in self esteem and personal dignity if his history and culture are lost, both to him and to his white colleagues?”

African American Frustration Desegregation and voting rights in the South, but Desegregation and voting rights in the South, but Resistance to demands for civil rights in the North: jobs, housing, schools Resistance to demands for civil rights in the North: jobs, housing, schools Urban uprisings Urban uprisings Newark, 1967 Watts, 1965

Urban Rebellions “I felt invincible....Honestly, that is how powerful I felt. I’m not too proud of what I did, looking back. But I held nothing back. I let out all my frustrations with every brick, every bottle that I threw...I remembered feeling completely relieved. I unleashed all the emotions that had built up inside, ones I didn’t know how to express.” urban youth “I felt invincible....Honestly, that is how powerful I felt. I’m not too proud of what I did, looking back. But I held nothing back. I let out all my frustrations with every brick, every bottle that I threw...I remembered feeling completely relieved. I unleashed all the emotions that had built up inside, ones I didn’t know how to express.” urban youth

Urban Rebellions 1965: Watts 1965: Watts 1966: 43 riots 1966: 43 riots 1967: 167 riots 1967: 167 riots 1968: violence in 168 cities after murder of King; 46 dead; 15,000 troops patrol the streets of Washington, D.C. 1968: violence in 168 cities after murder of King; 46 dead; 15,000 troops patrol the streets of Washington, D.C : 250 dead; 8,000 wounded; 50,000 arrested; in nearly 300 race riots : 250 dead; 8,000 wounded; 50,000 arrested; in nearly 300 race riots.

1967 Detroit Riot 43 dead, 2000 injured, 5000 homeless, $500 million in property damage.

The Black Freedom Struggle Ordinary people risk everything, force governments to act Ordinary people risk everything, force governments to act The end of legal segregation and discrimination The end of legal segregation and discrimination Overt racism no longer seen as legitimate, yet Overt racism no longer seen as legitimate, yet Subtle racism Subtle racism Economic deprivation persists Economic deprivation persists