Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Development Through the Lifespan Chapter 2 Biological and Environmental Foundations This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:  Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;  Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images;  Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Genotypes and Phenotypes Genotype Genetic make-up of an individual Genotype Genetic make-up of an individual Phenotype Observable characteristics of an individual

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Genetic Foundations  Chromosomes – store and transmit genetic information  Genes – segments of DNA located along the chromosomes  DNA – substance of which genes and chromosomes are made.  Chromosomes – store and transmit genetic information  Genes – segments of DNA located along the chromosomes  DNA – substance of which genes and chromosomes are made.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 DNA and Mitosis

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chromosomes, Cells, and Sex: Terminology Autosomes The 22 pairs of chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes Sex Chromosomes 23rd pair of chromosomes Determines sex XX = female, XY = male GametesSex cells: Sperm and ova ZygoteSperm and ovum united

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Twins Fraternal/Dizygotic  Two zygotes, or fertilized ova Identical/Monozygotic  One zygote that divides into two individuals Fraternal/Dizygotic  Two zygotes, or fertilized ova Identical/Monozygotic  One zygote that divides into two individuals

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Alleles  Two forms of the same gene  Appear at the same place on both chromosomes in a pair  One inherited from each parent  Homozygous - the two alleles are alike  Heterozygous - the alleles differ  Two forms of the same gene  Appear at the same place on both chromosomes in a pair  One inherited from each parent  Homozygous - the two alleles are alike  Heterozygous - the alleles differ

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Dominant-Recessive Inheritance

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 X-Linked Inheritance

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Incomplete Dominance and Polygenetic Inheritance Incomplete Dominance  Both alleles of a single gene are expressed  Results in  combined trait or  intermediate between the two Incomplete Dominance  Both alleles of a single gene are expressed  Results in  combined trait or  intermediate between the two Polygenic Inheritance  Many genes combine to influence a trait

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Genetic Imprinting and Mutation Imprinting  Chemical marker that activates either father’s or mother’s gene  Often temporary Imprinting  Chemical marker that activates either father’s or mother’s gene  Often temporary Mutation  Sudden, permanent change in a DNA segment

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chromosomal Abnormalities  Down Syndrome Problems with the 21st chromosome  Sex Chromosome Abnormalities Problems with the X or Y chromosomes  Down Syndrome Problems with the 21st chromosome  Sex Chromosome Abnormalities Problems with the X or Y chromosomes

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Reproductive Choices  Genetic counseling  Prenatal diagnosis and fetal medicine  Genetic testing  Adoption

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Reproductive Technologies  Donor Insemination  In Vitro Fertilization  Surrogate Mother  New Technologies  Donor Insemination  In Vitro Fertilization  Surrogate Mother  New Technologies

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Genetic Counseling Helps couples:  Assess chances of hereditary disorders  Choose best course of action  Risks  Family goals Recommended when:  Couple has had difficulties  Aware of genetic problems  Woman is over 35 Helps couples:  Assess chances of hereditary disorders  Choose best course of action  Risks  Family goals Recommended when:  Couple has had difficulties  Aware of genetic problems  Woman is over 35

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Prenatal Diagnostic Methods  Amniocentesis  Chorionic Villus Sampling  Fetoscopy  Ultrasound  Maternal Blood Analysis  Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis  Amniocentesis  Chorionic Villus Sampling  Fetoscopy  Ultrasound  Maternal Blood Analysis  Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Amniocentesis and Chorionic Villus Sampling

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Adoption and Adjustment

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Environmental Contexts for Development  Family  Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning  Affluence  Poverty  Neighborhoods, Towns and Cities  Cultural Context

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Family Influences on Development  Direct  Two-person relationships  Indirect  Third Parties  Adapting to Change  Changes from within and outside the family  Direct  Two-person relationships  Indirect  Third Parties  Adapting to Change  Changes from within and outside the family

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Socioeconomic Status (SES)  Social Status  Years of education  Job prestige and skill required  Economic Status  Income

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning  Timing and duration of family life cycle  Values and expectations  Father’s involvement  Communication and discipline styles  Children’s cognitive development

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Risks of Affluence  Alcohol and drug use  Anxiety  Depression  Unavailable parents  Overscheduled  Demanding  Unavailable parents  Overscheduled  Demanding

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Importance of Regularly Eating Dinner as a Family

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Who is Poor?  12% in U.S. and Canada  Parents under age 25 with young children  Elderly living alone, especially women  Ethnic Minorities  Women  Children  12% in U.S. and Canada  Parents under age 25 with young children  Elderly living alone, especially women  Ethnic Minorities  Women  Children

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Children in Poverty: U.S. and Canada

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Benefits of Strong Community Ties for Children and Adults  Social interaction, activities  Cooperation to provide clean, safe environment  Participation in important tasks  Mutual assistance  Social interaction, activities  Cooperation to provide clean, safe environment  Participation in important tasks  Mutual assistance

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Extended Families  Three or more generations living together  More common in many minority cultures  Benefits  Reduces stress of poverty  Assistance for all generations  Emotional bonds, support  Three or more generations living together  More common in many minority cultures  Benefits  Reduces stress of poverty  Assistance for all generations  Emotional bonds, support

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Individualist and Collectivist Societies Individualist  People define themselves as separate from other people  Largely concerned with personal needs and goals Individualist  People define themselves as separate from other people  Largely concerned with personal needs and goals Collectivist  People define themselves as part of a group  Stress group goals over individual goals Collectivist  People define themselves as part of a group  Stress group goals over individual goals

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Poverty in Late Adulthood

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Indicators of Children’s Health and Well-Being U.S. RankCanadian Rank Childhood Poverty2316 Infant Death2616 Teen Pregnancy2821 Education Spending106 Health Spending164

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Much Does Heredity Contribute to Behavior? Heritability Estimates  Portion of individual differences attributable to genetics  Ranges from 0 to 1.00 Heritability Estimates  Portion of individual differences attributable to genetics  Ranges from 0 to 1.00 Concordance  What percent of the time do twins both show a trait?  Ranges from 0 to 100% Concordance  What percent of the time do twins both show a trait?  Ranges from 0 to 100%

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Range of Reaction

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Genetic-Environment Correlation  Passive Correlation  Evocative Correlation  Active Correlation  Niche-picking  Passive Correlation  Evocative Correlation  Active Correlation  Niche-picking

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Epigenetic Framework