Groups form through personal, situational, and interpersonal processes. Formation depends on the members themselves; some are more likely than others to join groups. Groups come into existence when circumstances push people together rather than keeping them apart. Groups also spring up when people discover that they like one another, and this attraction provides the foundation for the development of interpersonal bonds.  Who joins groups?  When do people seek out others?  What processes generate bonds of interpersonal attraction between members of groups? 4 Formation Images Courtesy of the Yorck Project

Joining Groups PersonalityMen and WomenSocial MotivationAnxiety and Attachment Attitudes, Experiences, Expectations Affiliation Social ComparisonStress and Affiliation Social Comparison and the Self Attraction Principles of Attraction The Economics of Membership Preview Relationships? Depends on attraction between people, for groups form when individuals find they like one another. Who? Depends on individuals' personal qualities (traits, social motives, sex, etc.) When? Depends on the situation (e.g., ambiguous, tasks)

Joining Groups Who Joins Groups and Who Remains Apart? Personality The Five Factor Model of Personality Ways in which each person is like some other people; dimensions of variation among people The Five Factor Model (FFM) describes the “big 5” personality traits or dimensions of difference.

Sex differences in group engagement are relatively minor ■Women tend to be higher than men in relationality. ■Women seek membership in smaller, informal, intimate groups, whereas men seek membership in larger, more formal, task-focused groups. ■These differences are likely due, in part, to sex roles and sexism. Men and Women

Social motives predict people’s interest in joining groups  need for affiliation (and rejection sensitivity)  need for intimacy  need for power These motives are often measured using indirect, projective tests and “experience sample” methods Social Motivation

Schutz’s work on his Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation (FIRO) theory that explains how people use groups to satisfy their need to receive and express inclusion, control, and affection.

Anxiety and Attachment Individuals who are socially inhibited, shy, and anxious are less likely to join groups.

Attitudes, Experiences, Expectations People’s attitudes, experiences, and expectations are all factors that influence their decision to join a group. Karau’s Beliefs about Groups Scale

Attitudes, Experiences, Expectations Students who had positive experiences in groups in high school were more likely to seek out groups to join in college (the direct relationship between "positive experiences in groups" and "seeking groups"). Source: Brinthaupt, Moreland, & Levine, 1991; Pavelchak, Moreland, & Levine, 1986 Note: Sense of Injustice + Negative Emotions (Anger) = Social Movement Participation

Affiliation Joining Groups Affiliation Attraction Affiliation is the gathering together of conspecifics in one location. Affiliation becomes more likely in some situations and less likely in others. When individuals face uncertain or bewildering conditions, when they experience stressful circumstances, and when they are fearful (but not embarrassed), by joining a group they can gain the information and social support they need to help them cope with difficult circumstances.

Sex differences in group engagement are relatively minor. ■Women tend to be higher than men in relationality. ■Women seek membership in smaller, informal, intimate groups, whereas men seek membership in larger, more formal, task-focused groups. ■These differences are likely due, in part, to sex roles and sexism. Joining Groups

Ambiguous, confusing circumstances Psychological reaction  Negative emotions  Uncertainty  Need for information Affiliation and social comparison with others Cognitive Clarity Affiliation and social comparison Social comparison: gaining information from other people’s reactions (Festinger, 1954) Social Comparison

Schachter’s studies of affiliation How do people react in an ambiguous, frightening situation?  Misery loves company: People affiliate with others  Misery loves miserable company: Schachter found people prefer to wait with others facing a similar experience.  Misery loves company: People affiliate with others  Misery loves miserable company: Schachter found people prefer to wait with others facing a similar experience. Social Comparison

Other Motives May Reduce Affiliation Morris and his colleagues studied what people actually do when they affiliate in 3 types of situations

Groups facilitate both “fight-or- flight” and “tend-and-befriend” responses to stress. Stress and Affiliation

Types of Social Support Belonging Emotional support Informational support Instrumental support Spiritual support Stress and Affiliation

Directional Comparison Social Comparison and the Self Downward Social Comparison Choosing comparison targets who are perform- ing poorly compared to oneself Boosts self- esteem Upward Social Comparison Choosing comparison targets who are perform- ing poorly compared to oneself Increases optimism, elevates goals Self-evaluation Maintenance (SEM) People prefer to associate with indivi- duals who do not outper- form them in areas that are very relevant to their self- esteem

If the students thought that the task was important, they judged their performance to be superior to that of their close friend. If the task was not important to them personally, they felt that they had performed relatively worse (Tesser, Campbell, & Smith, 1984). Social Comparison and the Self

Joining Groups PersonalityMen and WomenSocial MotivationAnxiety and Attachment Attitudes, Experiences, Expectations Affiliation Social ComparisonStress and Affiliation Social Comparison and the Self Attraction Principles of Attraction The Economics of Membership Newcomb (1960) offered 17 young men starting their studies at the University of Michigan free rent if they answered a detailed survey of their attitudes, likes, and dislikes each week. Then he watched as the 17 students sorted themselves out into friendship pairs and distinct groups Newcomb identified a small number of principles that explain when liking is more likely.

Proximity People tend to like those who are situated nearby, in part because it increases familiarity and interaction Elaboration Groups often emerge when additional elements (people) become linked to the original members. Similarity People like others who are similar to them in some way. In consequence, most groups tend toward increasing levels of homophily. Principles of Attraction

Frequent online interactions increase attraction. A network view of relational elaboration Principles of Attraction

Complementarity People like others whose qualities complement their own qualities Reciprocity Liking tends to be mutual Minimax Individuals are attracted to groups that offer them maximum rewards and minimal costs. Principles of Attraction Schutz identified two key forms of compatibility: interchange compatibility (based on similarity) and originator compatibility (based on complementarity).

Satisfaction is determined by comparison level (CL) The Economics of Membership Value of other groups determines comparison level for alternatives (CL alt )

Review Joining Groups PersonalityMen and WomenSocial MotivationAnxiety and Attachment Attitudes, Experiences, Expectations Affiliation Social ComparisonStress and Affiliation Social Comparison and the Self Attraction Principles of Attraction The Economics of Membership

The work of art depicted in these images and the reproduction thereof are in the public domain worldwide. The reproduction is part of a collection of reproductions compiled by The Yorck Project. The compilation copyright is held by Zenodot Verlagsgesellschaft mbH and licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License.Zenodot Verlagsgesellschaft mbH Henri Fantin-LatourHenri Fantin-Latour (1836–1904) Around the Table Claude MonetClaude Monet (1840–1926), Nymphéas