AP Environmental Science Terrestrial Biodiversity andClimate © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP

1. Weather & Climate © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP What is the difference between weather and climate? Weather- short–term properties of troposphere (temperature, pressure, humidity, precipitation, solar radiation, cloud cover, wind direction and speed) Troposphere- the lowermost atmospheric layer where weather occurs Climate- general, long–term weather of a region. Global temperature and precipitation patterns are determined by uneven heating of Earth by Sun and lead to distinct climate zones according to latitude.

Climate the average weather patterns for an area over a long period of time (30 - 1,000,000 years). is It is determined by Average Precipitation Average Temperatureand which are influenced by latitudealtitudeocean currents and affects where people livehow people live what they grow and eat © 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning

Climate: Global Patterns © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Major factors influencing climate: Air circulation patterns which are determined by 1.Uneven heating of Earth's surface  uneven heating of troposphere from beneath. 2.Seasonal changes in temp and precipitation due to Earth's tilt on axis and revolution about the sun 3.Earth's rotation on its axis 4.Special properties of air, water, and land affect global air circulation (land absorbs heat faster than water but water releases the heat slower) 5.Wind FormationWind Formation Ocean currents (water circulation) -Influenced by factors that influence air circulation plus differences in water density.

© Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Earth's tilted axis (23.5º) causes more direct sunlight at equator and more dispersed sunlight at higher latitudes. This plays a major role in weather and climate. Fig. 7–3 Climate: Air Circulation Patterns Uneven Heating of Earth’s Surface

Air Circulation Patterns: Rotation of Earth on Axis Earth’s surface turns faster under equator than at poles This deflects the movements of winds moving N or S to the W at the equator and the E closer to the poles.

Air Circulation Patterns: Special Properties of Air, Water and Land © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Fig. 7–5 Air circulation patterns, such as vertical convection currents, mix air in the troposphere and transport heat and water from one area to another in circular convection cells, called Hadley cells.

Global Air Circulation Patterns © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Fig. 7–6 Conceptual model of global air circulation and biomes.

Greenhouse Effect © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP The greenhouse effect- a natural process in which heat–trapping gases (CO 2, H 2 O, etc.) trap heat in the troposphere. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth would be cold and lifeless. Fig. 7–9

Climate: Ocean Currents © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Major patterns: Ocean current kinetic energy (in form of heat) transferred from air circulation (winds) to water at ocean surface solar energy –> wind kinetic energy –> ocean kinetic energy Deep currents driven by cooling and by increased salinity – both make water denser and cause to sink; Currents redistribute heat and moderate coastal climate Example: Gulf stream brings warm water far north to cause NW Europe to be warm (otherwise Europe would have subarctic climate).

Weather & Climate Weather & Climate © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Fig. 7–2

Currents: Upwelling © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Upwelling- a process that brings deep, cool, nutrient–rich waters up to replace surface water, leading to increased primary productivity, with large populations of phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, and fish–eating birds. Fig. 7–7

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP  ENSO- A periodic shift in global climate conditions (every 3–4 yrs)  Western flowing (called “easterly”) winds in the Pacific Ocean weaken or cease  Surface water along N. and S. America become warmer  Upwelling decreases  Primary productivity along the S.A. coast declines sharply ***Strong ENSO affects over two–thirds of the globe. Earth System: El Niño

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Fig. 7–8

El Niño Unusually warm periods Unusually high rainfall Drought

Microclimate © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP  Topography, water bodies and other local features create local climate conditions different from the norm known as microclimate.  Mountains commonly result in high rainfall on the windward side and low rainfall in the rain shadow of the leeward side.  Urban areas with lots of brick, asphalt and concrete absorb sunlight and reradiate it as heat to the air. Fig. 7–10

2. Biomes © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Varying climates lead to varying communities of organisms. Biomes- the major types of terrestrial ecosystems **Determined primarily by climate (precipitation and temperature) Major groupings of biomes (desert, grassland, forest and mountain) found in tropical, temperate and arctic conditions. Similar traits of plants and animals for biomes of different parts of world; because of similar climate and evolutionary pressures (convergence) Types of plants in a biome is dictated by precipitation

Biomes: Desert, Grassland, Forest and Mountain © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Fig. 7–11 Earth's major biomes.

3. Desert Biomes © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Fig. 7–14 Climate graphs showing typical variation in annual temperature and precipitation for tropical, temperate and polar deserts. EVAPORATION EXCEEDS PRECIPITATION

Desert Biomes © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Characteristics: Low precipitation--< 25 cm (10 in) annually Sparse, widely spaced, mostly low vegetation 30% of land surface, especially at 30° N and 30° S latitude Largest on interiors of continents; Plants typically deep rooted shrubs with small leaves, succulents, or short–lived species that flourish after rain Animals typically nocturnal and have physical adaptations for conserving water and dealing with heat FRAGILE BIOME DUE TO LONG REGENERATION TIME OF VEGETATION WHEN DESTROYED! American Field Guide Viewer-Deserts

Natural Capital Degradation Deserts Large desert cities Soil destruction by off- road vehicles and urban development Soil salinization from irrigation Depletion of underground water supplies Land disturbance and pollution from mineral extraction Storage of toxic and radioactive wastes Large arrays of solar cells and solar collectors used to produce electricity

4. Grassland, Tundra and Chaparral Biomes © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Fig. 7–17 Climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature and precipitation in tropical (savannas), temperate and polar grasslands (tundras) THE ARCTIC TUNDRA IS THE MOST FRAGILE BIOME!!—bitter cold, slow rate of plant growth and decomposition, therefore shallow soil.

Grassland Biomes © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Characteristics: Sufficient rainfall to support grass, but often too dry for forests Mostly on interiors of continents Maintained by seasonal drought, grazing and periodic fires that prevent invasion by shrubs and trees High diversity of grasses and herbaceous plants that typically have resistance to drought, grazing and fire **Fertile topsoil EXCEPT in arctic tundra Animals include large and small herbivores, along with predators adapted to feed on these herbivores.

Grassland Biomes: Chaparral Characteristics: Found in many coastal regions that border on deserts (i.e. California) Temperate shrubland Consists of dense growths of low-growing evergreen shrubs and small trees Very susceptible to fires, but is also maintained by them

Natural Capital Degradation Grasslands Conversion of savanna and temperate grasslands to cropland Release of CO 2 to atmosphere from burning and conversion of grassland to cropland Overgrazing of tropical and temperate grasslands by livestock Damage to fragile arctic tundra by oil production, air and water pollution, and off-road vehicles

5. Forest Biomes © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Fig. 7–22 Climate graphs showing typical variations in annual temperature and precipitation in tropical, temperate and polar forests (boreal, or taiga).

Forest Biomes © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Characteristics: Sufficient rainfall to support growth of trees but soil nutrients are major limiting factor 3 types: -Tropical, typically broadleaf evergreen trees with high diversity (2% of Earth’s surface but are habitats for at least 50% of our Earth’s terrestrial species) -Temperate, typically deciduous broadleaf tree with moderate diversity and **nutrient rich soil -Boreal (taiga), typical conifers (needle leaves) with low diversity. American Field Guide Viewer--TaigaAmerican Field Guide Viewer--Taiga

Forest Biomes Community of plants and animals typically distributed in various layers and various niches: - -Understory of herbaceous plants and shrubs - -Subcanopy of tree saplings - -Canopy of full grown trees. - -Emergent layer gets most direct sunlight

Natural Capital Degradation Forests Clearing and degradation of tropical forests for agriculture, livestock grazing, and timber harvesting Clearing of temperate deciduous forests in Europe, Asia, and North America for timber, agriculture, and urban development Clearing of evergreen coniferous forests in North America, Finland, Sweden, Canada, Siberia, and Russia Conversion of diverse forests to less biodiverse tree plantations Damage to soils from off-road vehicles

Mountain Ice and snow Altitude Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Coniferous Forest Tropical Forest Deciduous Forest Tropical Forest Deciduous Forest Coniferous Forest Tundra (herbs, lichens, mosses) Polar ice and snow Latitude 6. Mountain Biomes Similar changes in vegetation type occur when increasing latitude or increasing altitude Each 100 m (300 ft) gain in elevation is approximately equal to a 100 km (62 mi) change in latitude

Mountain Biomes © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Characteristics: Diversity of habitat because of altitude, slope orientation, corresponding microclimate and soil over short distances; Complex patterning of vegetation 20% of Earth's surface Majority of world's forests Timberline- elevation above which trees do not grow Snowline- elevation above which there is permanent snow Important as watersheds for lowlands.

Natural Capital Degradation Mountains Landless poor migrating uphill to survive Hydroelectric dams and reservoirs Increasing tourism (such as hiking and skiing) Air pollution from industrial and urban centers Increased ultraviolet radi- ation from ozone depletion Timber extraction Mineral resource extraction Soil damage from off-road vehicles

7. Perspectives on Geographical Ecology © Brooks/Cole Publishing Company / ITP Important Lessons -Everything is connected -Temperature and precipitation result patterns result from interplay of incoming solar radiation and geometry of Earth's rotation and orbit -Temperature and precipitation are major determinants of the distribution of organisms -Understanding the range of biodiversity and its distribution provides a global perspective. -Teachers' Domain: Earth as a SystemTeachers' Domain: Earth as a System