Michael C. McKenna University of Virginia

Using the Cognitive Model to Look for Patterns

The Cognitive Model Phonological Awareness Decoding and Sight Word Knowledge Print Concepts Fluency in Context Automatic Word Recognition Reading Comprehension Language Comprehension Strategic Knowledge General Purposes for Reading Specific Purposes for Reading Knowledge of Strategies for Reading Vocabulary Knowledge Background Knowledge Knowledge of Text and Sentence Structures

The Cognitive Model Phonological Awareness Decoding and Sight Word Knowledge Print Concepts Fluency in Context Automatic Word Recognition Reading Comprehension Language Comprehension Strategic Knowledge General Purposes for Reading Specific Purposes for Reading Knowledge of Strategies for Reading Vocabulary Knowledge Background Knowledge Knowledge of Text and Sentence Structures

The Cognitive Model Phonological Awareness Decoding and Sight Word Knowledge Print Concepts Fluency in Context Automatic Word Recognition Reading Comprehension Language Comprehension Strategic Knowledge General Purposes for Reading Specific Purposes for Reading Knowledge of Strategies for Reading Vocabulary Knowledge Background Knowledge Knowledge of Text and Sentence Structures

The Cognitive Model Phonological Awareness Decoding and Sight Word Knowledge Print Concepts Fluency in Context Automatic Word Recognition Reading Comprehension Language Comprehension Strategic Knowledge General Purposes for Reading Specific Purposes for Reading Knowledge of Strategies for Reading Vocabulary Knowledge Background Knowledge Knowledge of Text and Sentence Structures

The Cognitive Model Phonological Awareness Decoding and Sight Word Knowledge Print Concepts Fluency in Context Automatic Word Recognition Reading Comprehension Language Comprehension Strategic Knowledge General Purposes for Reading Specific Purposes for Reading Knowledge of Strategies for Reading Vocabulary Knowledge Background Knowledge Knowledge of Text and Sentence Structures

Case Study: Kareem Inadequate Oral Fluency Good Sight Vocabulary What do you do next? Answer: Assess phonics

Case Study: Sallie Adequate Oral Fluency What do you do next? Answer: No further assessment

Case Study: Mike Weak Oral Fluency Weak Sight Vocabulary What do you do next? Answer: Assess phonics

Case Study: Wanda Weak Oral Fluency Weak Sight Vocabulary Weak Phonics What do you do next? Answer: Assess PA

Case Study: Fred Weak Oral Fluency Weak Sight Vocabulary Strong Phonics What do you do next? Answer: No further assessment

Case Study: Gloria Weak Oral Fluency Strong Sight Vocabulary Strong Phonics What do you do next? Answer: No further assessment

Building an Assessment Toolkit for Word Recognition PA Screening Test PA Levels Inventory Phonics Screening Test Informal Phonics Inventory Sight Word Screening Test Sight Word Inventory Oral Reading Fluency Screening Test

Building an Assessment Toolkit for Word Recognition DIBELS PA Screening Test PA Levels Inventory Phonics Screening Test Informal Phonics Inventory Sight Word Screening Test Sight Word Inventory Oral Reading Fluency

Building an Assessment Toolkit for Word Recognition DIBELS PA Screening Test ISF, PSF PA Levels Inventory None Phonics Screening Test LNF, NWF Informal Phonics Inventory None Sight Word Screening Test None Sight Word Inventory None Oral Reading Fluency ORF

 ISF and PSF are not diagnostic.  They are sometimes useful in gauging response to intervention, but only if instruction targets the same skills they assess.  What’s needed is a more fine-grained measure of how children progress through stages of PA development.

Rhyme Detection Rhyme Generation Phoneme Isolation Phoneme Identity Phoneme Categorization Blending Phoneme Addition Phoneme Deletion Phoneme Substitution Phoneme segmentation The goals are to (1)find out the level at which a child is functioning, (2)provide instruction at the next level, and (3)periodically test to see if the instruction has taken the child to that level.

Student can identify teacher-generated words that rhyme or don’t rhyme. Example I will say three words. Tell me the word that does not rhyme with the other two. cat, ball, hat

Student can generate words that rhyme with a teacher prompt. Example Tell me some words that rhyme with cat.

Student can isolate particular sounds from the remainder of the word. Example The first sound we hear in the word dog is /d/. What is the first sound you hear in the word cat?

Given three words, the child can identify a common sound in all three words. Example Tell me the sound you hear in all three of these words: mad, pat, can

Given three words, two of which have a common sound, the child can identify the word that lacks that sound. Example I will say three words. Two of them have one sound that is the same. Tell me the word that doesn’t belong: horse, duck, dog

Phoneme Blending Upon hearing the phonemes that make up a word, the child can identify the word. Example Tell the child that you are going to say a word in your own “secret code.” Then pronounce the word by saying each phoneme in succession. For example, say”/k/ /a/ /t/.” The child must blend these sounds to form the word cat.

Upon hearing an onset and rime, the child can blend them to form a word. Example Provide the child with a common rime. Ask the child to make a word by adding a sound. “What word do we get if we add /sh/ to the beginning of ake.”

Upon hearing a word, the child can remove the onset and say just the rime. Example Say a common one-syllable word, such as cake. Ask the child to remove the beginning sound, so that the child says ake.

Given a word and a new onset, the child can replace the original onset and say the new word that is formed. Example The word is shake. Change /k/ to /d/ to make a new word.

Given a word, the child can say its phonemes in sequence. Example When I say the word dog, I can hear the sounds /d/ /o/ /g/. What sounds do you hear when I say … bad? Progress from CVC to CCVC to CCVCC

What diagnostic tools that are already available to you can provide this information about PA? Take a moment …

 NWF is not diagnostic.  It is inappropriate to analyze NWF errors to determine skill deficits. ◦ It is timed. ◦ It is not systematic.  Miscue analysis is not a reliable method of determing skill deficits. ◦ The effects of context often distort what a child can do. ◦ Sight word knowledge can lead to overestimates of phonics knowledge. ◦ See McKenna & Picard (2006/07).

 A graduated inventory of phonics skills can guide instructional planning.  It can also be used for progress monitoring.  Such an inventory can include letter sounds in isolation, real words, and nonsense words.  It is untimed.

Consonant Sounds Consonant Digraphs Beginning Consonant Blends Final Consonant Blends Short Vowels in CVC Words The Rule of Silent e Long Vowel Digraphs (Teams) Diphthongs r-controlled Vowels and -al Hierarchy of Decoding Skills

Point to S. Say, “What sound does this letter say?” Go from left to right, repeating this question. It is fine if the child reads across a line without prompting. For C and G, have the child give both sounds. Note: If the child cannot pass this subtest, consider giving an alphabet inventory.

Point to Th. Say, “What sound do these letters say?” Go from left to right, repeating this instruction. It is fine if the child reads all five without prompting.

Point to bl. Say, “What sound do these letters say?” Allow child to proceed with or without prompting.

Point to bank. Say, “What is this word?” Allow child to proceed with or without prompting.

Point to fit. Say, “What is this word?” Allow child to proceed with or without prompting.

Have the child read each word across each line, from left to right.

Have the child read each word, from left to right.

What diagnostic tools that are already available to you can provide this information about decoding? Take a moment …

 Noting words a student can identify automatically while reading orally is not a reliable way to judge sight vocabulary. ◦ It is not systematic. ◦ It lacks benchmarks. ◦ It does not control for context.  Graded lists of high-frequency words can be used to judge whether a student’s acquisition of sight words is adequate.

An organization like this allows you to quickly judge sight word level. Simply find the highest level with 80% accuracy. This same test can be used diagnostically, since each word missed becomes an instructional target.

What diagnostic tools that are already available to you can provide this information about sight words? Take a moment …

 Remember that fluency problems are diagnosed by examining screening results at lower levels (word recognition and PA).  ORF qualifies as a screening test but is inadequate for diagnostic purposes.

 Although diagnostic assessment in these areas is not possible, we can assess a student’s responsiveness to instruction in two principal ways.  Compare screenings at two points in time.  Measure growth with respect to a specific text or set of texts.

 Although there are no diagnostic tests of vocabulary, it is possible to judge a student’s responsiveness to vocabulary instruction.  One way is to assess knowledge of word meanings taught during small-group work over the course of a unit.  RtI requires pre/post comparisons.  There are many ways to assess word knowledge, and all are problematic.

 Like vocabulary, it is possible to judge how well a student comprehends a selection.  Doing so over a series of texts can help you judge whether the student is responding to instruction.  Unfortunately, this approach cannot tell you whether the student’s ability to comprehend is improving. Only repeated screenings can do so.  But repeated screenings are problematic because so many factors influence comprehension.

How might the tests in this toolkit be used in a comprehensive RtI model?

PA and Word Recognition Word Recognition and Fluency Fluency and Comprehension Vocabulary & Comprehension A Stairway to Proficiency

McKenna, M. C., & Picard, M. (2006/2007). Does miscue analysis have a role in effective practice? The Reading Teacher, 60, McKenna, M. C., & Stahl, K. A. D. (2009). Assessment for reading instruction (2 nd ed.). New York: Guilford. Walpole, S., & McKenna, M. C. (2009). How to plan differentiated reading instruction: Resources for grades K-3. New York: Guilford. Walpole, S., & McKenna, M. C. (2007). Differentiated reading instruction: Strategies for the primary grades. New York: Guilford.